THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published in
three volumes,
1768—1771.
SECOND
>y
>»
ten „
1777— 1784.
THIRD
>f
■>■■
eighteen „
1788— 1797.
FOURTH
»
tt
twenty „
1801 — 1810.
FIFTH
>»
i>
twenty „
1815—1817.
SIXTH
>»
)»
twenty „
1823 — 1824.
SEVENTH
»)
»
twenty-one „
1830 — 1842.
EIGHTH
tj
s»
twenty-two „
1853— 1860.
NINTH
»
>»
twenty-five ,,
1875— 1889.
TENTH
)»
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
1902 — 1903.
ELEVENTH
)>
published in
twenty-nine volumes,
1910 — 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
AU rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVII
TONAUTE to VESUVIUS
New York
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
342 Madison Avenue
Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company,
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. Go.
A. C. S.
A. E. H. L.
A. F. L.
A. F. P.
A. Ge.
A. Go.*
A. H. K.
A. H.-S.
A.J.
A. J. G.
A. J. L.
A. L.
A. Lo.
A.M.*
A. M.-Fa.
Alfred Bradley Gough, M.A., Ph.D.
Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford.
University of Kiel, 1 896-1 905.
Algernon Charles Swinburne.
See the biographical article: Swinburne, Algernon Charles.
Augustus Edward Hough Love, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.
English Lector at the i Trier.
1 Tourneur, Cyril.
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Secretary
to the London Mathematical Society. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford; I
formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. L
rford. Secretary J Variations, Calculus of.
College, Oxford;
Udal, Nicholas.
Arthur Francis Leach, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. .
Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls
College, Oxford, 1 874-1 88 1. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. '-
Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. (
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- 1 Vermigll, Pietro Martire.
1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer;&c.
Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B.
See the biographical article: Geikie, Sir Archibald.
i Vesuvius (in part).
Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
Augustus Henry Keane, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.
Emeritus Professor of Hindustani at University College, London.
Ethnology ; Man Past and Present ; The World's Peoples ; &c.
Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, CLE.
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
f Unitarianism;
l Valdes, Juan de.
Author of \ Tripoli: North Africa (in part);
L Ural-Altaic.
Urmia, Lake of.
\ United States: History (in part).
Alexander Johnston.
See the biographical article: Johnston, Alexander.
Rev. Alexander James Grieve, M.A., B.D.
Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent
College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of
Mysore Educational Service. I
Andrew Jackson Lamoureux. r ,. „ . , . n . , , ,
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Venezuela. Geography and
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Statistics.
Ursula, St (in part).
{
Totemism.
Andrew Lang.
See the biographical article: Lang, Andrew.
Auguste Longnon.
Professor at the College de France, Paris. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Livre des vassaux du Comte de Cham-
pagne et de Brie; Geographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France
depuis Cesar jusqu'd nos jours; &c.
Rev. Allan Menzies, M.A., D.D.
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews.
of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy.
Alfred Morel-Fatio.
Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the J y e ga CarpiO (in part).
Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole |
des Chartes, 1885-1906. Author of L'Espagne au XVI e et au X VIP siecles. [_
Troyes: Counts of Troyes\
Vermandois.
Author J United Free Church of Scotland.
; J 1
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
v
VI
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A.N.
A. P. H.
A. R. B.
A. Sp.
A. Sy.
A. W. H."
A. W. R.
B. M.
B. R.
"Toucan; Touracou;
Tree-creeper; Trogon;
Tropic-bird; Trumpeter;
. Turkey; Turnstone.
Transvaal: History {in part).
Tract: Tract Societies.
Tricycle.
-I Verlaine, Paul.
| Utrecht, Treaty of.
B. W. G.
C. A. C.
C. A. S.
C. B.P.
C. C. W.
C. D. W.
C. EI.
C. F. A.
C. H. Ha.
C. J. L.
CM.
C. R. B.
Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Newton, Alfred.
Alfred Peter Hillier, M.D., M.P.
Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War,
1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in South Africa till 1896. Member of -
Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and political prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896.
M.P. for the Hitchin Division of Herts, 1910.
The Rev. Augustus Robert Buckland, M.A.
Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, London. Morning Preacher, Foundling -
Hospital, London. Author of The Heroic in Missions; &c.
Archibald Sharp.
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.
Arthur Symons.
See the biographical article : Symons, Arthur.
Arthur William Holland.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900
Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.
Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon.
of England.
Brander Matthews, A.M., LL.D., Litt.D., D.C.L. f
Professor of Dramatic Literature, Columbia University, New York. President of J Twain Mark.
the Modern Language Association of America (1910). Author of French Dramatists 1
of the I0h Century ; &c. I
Sir Boverton Redwood, D.Sc, F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.Inst.C.E.,
M.Inst.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of ,
London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical 1 Vaseline.
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of
the Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum
and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c.
Benedict William Ginsburg, M.A., LL.D. f
St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. J Tonnage.
Formerly Editor of The Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. 1
Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. >-
Charles Arthur Conant.
Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, J Trust Company.
Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks
of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. L
Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ Trade Marks (*'» P art )
Rev. Charles Anderson Scott, M.A.
Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian '
Church of England, Cambridge. Author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; &c.
Catherine Beatrice Phillips (Mrs W. Alison Phillips).
Associate of Bedford College, London.
Charles Crawford Whinery, A.M. f United States: History (in
Cornell University. Assistant Editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. \ part).
Ulfilas.
Unicorn.
Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright.
See the biographical article: Wright, Carroll Davidson.
Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L.
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East "
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for
German East Africa, 1900-1904.
Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor.
Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M., Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. Member of the
American Historical Association.
Sir Charles James Lyall, K.C.S.I., CLE., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London. Fellow of
King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department,
1 889-1 894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1 895-1 898. Author of
Translations of A ncient A rabic Poetry ; &c.
Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizislik
im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c.
Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c.
Trade Unions: United States.
Turks.
Transvaal: History {in part);
Turenne, Vicomte de;
Uniforms.
Truce of God;
Urban II.-VI.
Tulsi Das.
Trent, Council of;
Ultramontanism;
Vatican Council, The
Varthema, Ludovico di;
Vespucci, Amerigo.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
c. w. w.
D. B. Ma.
D. C. B.
D. C. G.
D. C. T.
D. F. T.
D. G. H.
D. H.
E. B.*
E. C. B.
E. E. A.
E. F. S.
E. G.
E. Ga.
E. H. M.
E. J. W. G.
E. K. C.
Ed. M.
B. 0.*
E. Tn.
Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary]
Commission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- 1 Van: Turkey (in part).
General of Military Education, 1 895-1 898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum;
Life of Lord Clive ; &c. *-
Duncan Black Macdonald, M.A., D.D. f
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Tjlema
Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional^
Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I
Demetrius Charles Boulger. f
Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon; J T n „ rna -
India in the 19th Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; 1 lournai -
&c. I
Daniel Coit Gilman.
See the biographical article : Gilman, Daniel Coit.
Universities: United States,
The A Variations.
Tralles;
Tripoli: Syria;
Troy and Troad (in part).
David Croal Thomson.
Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon 1 Troyon, Constant.
School of Painters; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick; &c.
Donald Francis Tovey.
Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto,
Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
David Hannay. f Toulon;
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ Tourville, Comte de;
Navy; Life of Emilio Castelar; &c. I Trafalgar, Battle Of.
Ernest Charles Francois Babelon.
Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Department of Medals and
Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academie des In- J XJtica.
scriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des
Monnaies Grecques et Romaines; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale.
Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt. J P' ap . 1 " s * s;
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," 1 Trm »anans;
in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Vallombrosians.
Ernest E. Austen. J
Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South ) Tsetse-fly.
Kensington. I
Edward Fairbrother Strange. f
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of i Utamaro.
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor
of Bell's " Cathedral " Series.
Edmund Gosse, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article : Gosse, Edmund.
Topelius, Zakris; Triolet;
Troubadour; Trouvere;
Usk, Thomas;
Vers de Societe; Verse.
Emile Garcke, M.Inst.E.E. r
Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of J Tramway.
Electrical Undertakings ; &c. 1
Ellis Hovell Minns, M.A. r
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian ■< Tyras.
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. [
Elias John Wilkinson Gibb.
Translator of several Turkish books.
Edmund Kerchever Chambers.
Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christi
College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval-
Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's
Poems.
Turkey: Literature.
Vaughan, Thomas.
Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt., LL.D. r
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Vardanes.
Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I
Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital,
Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of A
Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
Tongue: Surgery;
Tonsillitis; Ulcer;
Varicose Veins;
Venereal Diseases.
Rev. Ethelred Luke Taunton, (d. 1907). f Torauemada Thomas
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ '
Vlll
E. W. H.
F. C. C.
F. D. A.
F. G. M. B.
F. G. P.
F. J. H.
F. J. T.
F. Po.
F. R. C.
F. R. M.
F. S. P.
F. Wa.
F. W. Ga.
F. W. R.*
G. A. B.
G. A. C*
G. E.
G. E. D.
G. H. Bo.
G. J. T.
G. Re.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Ernest William Hobson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge.
Mathematics in the University.
Stokes Lecturer in -i Trigonometry,
Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th.
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, j T p. f . .
Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and] lon 5 ues > «*"' 01.
Morals; &c. I
Frank Dawson Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.R.S. f
Dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Logan Professor of Geology, McGill _
University, Montreal. President of the Canadian Mining Institute. Author of
Papers dealing with problems of Metamorphism ; &c.
Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge.
Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst. o __^
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J irI c r„iV» c„,i™. a , «.
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital, London, and the London School of Medicine for 1 ..... &vslem - Anatomy,
Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. *- veins: Anatomy.
Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. fTrimontium;
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Trinovantes"
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, | TJriconium - '
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. uiiluiiiuih,
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. L Verulamium.
Frederick Jackson Turner, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D., Ph.D. f United States: History (in
History, Harvard University. Formerly Professor of American "j j, ar A
Vancouver Island.
^ Vandals (in part).
r Tongue;
Professor of History, Harvard
History at the University of Wisconsin.
Professor of American
Author of Rise ef the New West; &c.
Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Pollock (Family).
{
Tort.
Frank R. Cana.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Transvaal: Geography and
Statistics and History (in
part) ;
Tripoli: North Africa (in part) ;
. Tsana (in part) ; Tuat.
Francis Richard Maunsell, C.M.G. f
Lieut. -Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurd- J Van* Turkey (in part)
istan), 1 897-1 898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. "
Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. I
_ f United States: Population
Francis Samuel _ Philbrick, A.M Ph.D. J and Social Conditions;
Formerly Fellow of Nebraska State .University, and Scholar and Resident Fellow < Indusiries and Commerce]
I Finance and Army.
of Harvard University. Member of the American Historical Association.
Francis Watt, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room.
Frederick William Gamble, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Professor of Zoology, Birmingham University.
Zoological Laboratories and Lecturer in Zoology, University of Manchester.
of Animal Life. Editor of Marshall and Hurst's Practical Zoology; &c.
Treasure Trove.
Formerly Assistant Director of the J
Author] Trematodes.
Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. ("Topaz;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1897-1902. i Tourmaline;
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. LTurauoise
George A. Boulenger, D.Sc, F.R.S. [
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British -j Trout.
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London. I
Rev. George Albert Cooke, M.A., D.D. r
Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of Holy Scripture, Oxford, and Fellow of Oriel J
College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary's Cathedral, Edinburgh. 1
Author of Text-Book of North Semitic Inscriptions ; &c. I
Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. I
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J
Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa- "
tion of Literature.
George Edward Dobson, M.A., M.B., F.Z.S., F.R.S. (1848-1895).
Army Medical Department, 1 868-1 888. Formerly Curator of the Royal Victoria ^
Museum, Netley. Author of Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera; A Monograph of*
the Insectivora, Systematic and Anatomical; &c.
Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A.
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' -<
School, London. Author of Translation of the Book of Isaiah; &c.
George James Turner.
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn.
Society.
Tyre (in part).
Utrecht: Province (in part).
Vampire.
Urim and Thummin.
Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden J Trinoda Necessitas.
Sir George Reid, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Reid, Sir George.
Turner.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
G. W. C*
H. A. C.
H. Ch.
H. De.
H. E. A.
H. F. B.
H. F. G.
H. F. T.
H. H.
H. Ha.
H. H. F.
H. H. J.
H. Lb.
H. L. C.
H. L. H.
H. L. 0.
H. M. C.
H. M. R.
H. M. Wo.
H.St.
H. Sw.
I. M. A.
J. An.
Rev. George Willis Cooke. f
Lecturer at Rand School of Social Science, New York. Author of Critical Study of J TTnitnrinnicnr TT V J O /
Emerson; History of Unitarianism in America; Woman in the Progress of Civiliza-\ umwiamsm. united Slates.
Hon; &c. L
Howard Adams Carson, A.M. f
Civil Engineer. Past President of the Boston Society of Civil Engineers. Formerly J Tunnel
Chief Engineer of the Boston Transit Commission. In charge of designing and con- 1
structing the Boston Subway, the East Boston Tunnel ; &c. L
Hugh Chisholm, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of
the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the ioth edition.
Rev. Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J.
Bollandist. Joint-editor of the Acta Sanctorum and the Analecta Bollandiana.
Henry Edward Armstrong, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
Professor of Chemistry at the City and Guilds of London Central Institute, South "
Kensington. Author of Introduction to the Study of Organic Chemistry.
Horatio Robert Forbes Brown, LL.D.
Editor of the Calendar of Venetian State Papers, for the Public Record Office. .
Author of Life on the Lagoons; Venetian Studies; John Addington Symonds, a
Biography; &c. L
Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S. , Ph.D. f
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. -I Tortoise.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History. [
Rev. Henry Fanshawe Tozer, M.A., F.R.G.S. r
Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the
British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece. -
Author of History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the
Geography of Greece ; &c.
Henri Simon Hymans, Ph.D.
Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa '
vie et son ceuvre.
Transvaal: History (in part).
J Valentine;
\ Veronica, St.
Valency.
Venice.
Trebizond.
Van Dyck (in part).
Heber Leonidas Hart, LL.D.
Barrister-at-law.
H. Hamilton Fyfe.
Special Correspondent of the Daily Mail; Dramatic Critic of The World.
of A Modern Aspasia; The New Spirit in Egypt; &c.
Sir Harry Hamilton Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Johnston, Sir H. H.
Horace Lamb, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Professor of Mathematics, University of Manchester. Formerly Fellow and Assistant
Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Royal Society,
1894-1896. Royal Medallist, 1902. President of the London Mathematical
Society, 1902-1904. Author of Hydrodynamics; &c.
Hugh Longbourne Callendar, F.R.S., LL.D. f
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of < Vaporization,
Physics in McGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London. [
\ Valuation and Valuers.
Author J Tricoupis, CharUaos.
f Tunisia;
1 Uganda; Unyoro.
Vector Analysis.
Harriet L. Hennessy, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I.
-j Tuberculosis.
Herbert Levi Osgood, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor of History at Columbia University, New York. Author of The American -I United States: History(in part).
Colonies in the Seventeenth Century ; &c.
Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A.
Fellow and Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Studies on Anglo- -
Saxon Institutions.
Hugh Munro Ross.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford.
ing Supplement. Author of British Railways.
Editor of The Times Engineer-
.("Tyr;
1 Valkyries.
Typography: Modern Practical
Typography (in part).
Trypanosomes.
Harold Mellor Woodcock, D.Sc.
Assistant to the Professor of Proto-Zoology, London University. Fellow of Uni- _
versity College, London. Author of " Haemoflagellates " in Sir E. Ray Lankester's
Treatise on Zoology, and of various scientific papers. I
Henry Sturt AT A f
Author of Idola Thealri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Utilitarianism.
Henry Sweet, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. r
University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, J
Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since H Universal Languages.
the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. [
Rev. Isaac Morgan Atwood, M.A., D.D., LL.D. r
Secretary of the Universalist General Convention. Associate-editor of the Uni- I
versalist Leader, Boston. General Superintendent of the Universalist Church, -{ Universalist Church.
1898-1906. Author of Latest Word of Universalism; &c. [
Joseph Anderson, LL.D. r
Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to J TumulUS.
the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan
Times. {,
X
J. A. P.
J. A. H.
J.Br.
J. Bt.
J. B. M.
*J. C. H.
J. F.-K.
J.
F.
W.
J.
G.
H.
J.
G.
M.
J.
H.
H.
J.
H.
M.
J. H. R.
J. J. T.
J. L.*
J.
L.
E.
D.
J.
L.
W.
J.
0.
J.
0.
B.
J.
P,
-B.
J.
P.
Pe.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
John Ambrose Fleming, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. f
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of J Transformers*
University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and ] ¥j n j* s pv,v<rp.al
Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University.
Currents.
Author of Magnets and Electric
] 1
John Allen Howe.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
The Geology of Building Stones.
Right Hon. James Bryce, D.C.L., D.Litt.
See the biographical article: Bryce, James
. , A Torridonian;
Authorof lTrlassic System.
f Tribonian;
■j United States: Constitution
[ and Government.
James Bartlett. |
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c, at King's I v t ., t .
College, London. Member of the Society of Architects. Member of the Institute 1 » entuatlon '
of Junior Engineers. I
James Bass Mullinger, M.A. r
Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer
in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer J Universities.
in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of
History of the University of Cambridge ; The Schools of Charles the Great ; &c. I
Right Rev. John Cuthbert Hedley, O.S.B., D.D.
R.C. Bishop of Newport. Author of The Holy Eucharist; &c.
James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, Litt.D., F.R.Hist.S. r
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Translation;
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy, -j Valera y Alcala Galiano, Juan;
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Vega Carpio (in part).
Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. I
J Transubstantiation.
John Forbes White, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1904).
Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A.
&c.
J Velazquez (in part).
Tool.
Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E.
Author of Plating and Boiler-Making; Practical Metal-Turning; &c.
John Gray M'Kendrick, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). f£ 0UCh , ; « .
Emeritus Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Professor of \ Vascular System: History
Physiology, 1 876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of Helmholtz; &c. of Discovery.
John Henry Hessels, M.A.
Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation.
-j Typography: History.
John Henry Middleton, M. A., Litt.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). f
Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director Verona (in part);
of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the Souths Verrocchio, Andrea del;
Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Vesta (in part)
Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. I
John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. f
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family \ Vere (Family).
History; Peerage and Pedigree, [
Sis Joseph John Thomson, F.Sc, LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. r
Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge. President of the British Association, 1900^-1910. Author of A Treatise i Vacuum Tube.
on the Motion of Vortex Rings ; A pplication of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry ;
Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. I
Sir Joseph Larmor, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics
in the University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural Philo- "
sophy, Queen's College, Galway, 1 880-1 885. Author of Ether and Matter, and
various memoirs on Mathematics and Physics.
John Louis Emil Dreyer. f
Director of Armagh Observatory. Author of Planetary Systems from Thales to < Transit Circle.
Kepler; &c. I
Jessie Laidlay Weston. -f Tristan.
Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \
Josiah Oldpield, M.A., D.C.L., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. f ...
Barrister-at-law. Senior Physician of the Lady Margaret Fruitarian Hospital, ■} Vegetarianism.
Bromley. Author of Myrrh and Amaranth; The Voice of Nature; &c. [
Units, Dimensions of.
John Oliver Borley, M.A.
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst.
Editor of the Guardian, London.
Rev. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, Protestant Episcopal Cathedral of St John the Divine in New
York City. Formerly Professor of Hebrew, University of Pennsylvania. In charge .
of the Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania to Nippur, 1 888-1 895. Author
of Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian; Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on
the Euphrates; &c.
Trawling, Seining and Netting.
Vernis, Martin.
Ur.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
XI
J. So.
J. S. F.
J. S. N.
J. S. R.
John Southward.
J. T. Be.
J. W.
J. W. He.
J. W. J.
K. S.
L. C*
L. Du.
L. E. H.
L. J.*
L. J. S.
L.V.*
H. Br.
M. G.
M. N. T.
H. 0. B. C.
N. D. M.
Author of A Dictionary of Typography and its Accessory Arts; Practical Printing; ,
&c. I
. J Typography: Modem Practical
Typography (in part).
John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S. f Tonalite; Trachyte;
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in I Tuff- Varmlifoc-
Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 ,,' v « 10 " le! >»
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I Veins {Geology ).
Joseph Shield Nicholson, M.A., Sc.D. f
Professor of Political Economy at Edinburgh University. Fellow of the British
Academy. Author of Principles of Political Economy; Money and Monetary
Problems; &c.
James Smitf Reid, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D.
Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Christ's College.
Browne's and Chancellor's Medals. Editor of editions of Cicero's Academia; De
Amicitia; &c.
John Thomas Bealby.
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c.
J Usury;
[ Value.
r
1 Trajan;
| Tribune;
I Varro, Marcus Terentius.
Transbaikalia (in part);
Transcaspian Region (in part);
Turgai (in part);
Turkestan (in part);
Ufa (Government) (in part);
Ural Mountains (in part).
Torture.
James Williams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D.
All Souls Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln
College. Author of Wills and Succession ; &c.
James Wycliffe Headlam, M.A. _ f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education, London.
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient < Treitschke, Heinrich VOn.
History at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the
German Empire; &c. >-
Jeremiah Whipple Jenks.
See the biographical article: Jenks, Jeremiah Whipple.
Trusts.
Kathleen Schlesinger.
Editor of The Portfolio of Musical Archaeology.
Orchestra.
(Trigonon; Tromba Marina;
Trombone (in part);
Trumpet (in part);
Tuba; Valves.
Traction.
Louis Courtauld, M.A., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
Formerly Research Scholar, Middlesex Hospital Cancer Laboiatories. Author of -J Tumour.
Life-History of Pneumococcus ; &c.
Louis Duncan, Ph.D., M.Am.Inst.E.E.
Late Associate Professor of Applied Electricity at the Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, Md. Head of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Massachusetts "
Institute of Technology. L
Leonard Erskine Hill, F.R.S., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. .
Lecturer on Physiology at the London Hospital. Formerly Demonstrator of
Physiology in the University of Oxford; and Assistant Professor of Physiology,
University College, London. Author of Manual of Physiology; &c.
Lionel James, F.R.G.S.
The Times Special Correspondent in South Africa, 1899-1901. Reuter's Special
Correspondent in the Chitral Campaign, 1 894-1 895. Author of With the Chitral
Relief Force; On the Heels of De Wet; &c. &c.
Leonard James Spencer, M.A.
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the
Mineralogical Magazine.
LUIGI VlLLARI.
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in the east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phila-
delphia, 1907; and Boston, 1907-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and
Country; &c.
Margaret Bryant.
Moses Gaster ; Ph.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine
Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The
Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.
Marcus Niebuhr Tod, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy.
Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum.
Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A.
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham
University, 1905-1908.
Newton Denntson Mereness, A.M., Ph.D.
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province.
-{ Vascular System: Physiology.
\ Transvaal: History (in part).
f Torbernite; Tremolite;
\ Tridymite; Vanadinite;
[ Vesuvianite.
1 Tuscany: History;
Vespers, Sicilian.
fTourneur, Cyril: Introduction
\ and Bibliography .
Vacarescu.
I
Vaphio.
Trachis;
Umbria (Ancient).
f United States:
\ Flora.
Fauna and
Xll
O. Ba.
P. A. K.
P. C. M.
P.
C.
Y.
p.
Gi
p.
G.
K.
p.
La
R.
A
*
R.
A.
S.
R.
C.
J.
R.
D.
s.
R.
I.
p.
R.
J.
M.
fi K. D.
R. L.*
R. N. B.
R. P. S.
R. S. C.
R. Tr.
S. A. C.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Oswald Barron, F.S.A. f Tnnrn . jnmi .
Editor of the Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the \ *°" rn aineni.
Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I Tudor {Family).
Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.
See the biographical article: Kropotkin, Prince P. A.
Transbaikalia {in part);
Transcaspian Region {in part);
Turgai {in part);
Turkestan {in part);
Ufa {Government) {in part);
Ural Mountains {in part).
Variation and Selection;
Vertebrata.
Vane, Sir H.
Peter Chalmers Mitchell, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D.
Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com-
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Author of Outlines of Biology ; &c.
Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.
Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England.
Peter Giles, M.A., LL.D., Litt.D. r
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J "•
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 V.
logical Society. I
Paul George Konody. f Van Dyck {in part)-
Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. { \ rt .i a „„,,-„ /■ j, ,,\
Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work; &c. I velaZ( l uez <■*» P an >-
Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J v . r ,
of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 ven ezueia. ueotogy.
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I
Robert Anchel.
Archivist of the Department de l'Eure.
Vended, Wars of the.
Richard Alexander Streatfeild. ... f
Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Musical Critic of < Verdi, Guiseppe.
the Daily Graphic. Author of Masters of Italian Music ; The Opera ; &c. |_
Sir P.ich\rd Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D.C.L., Litt.D.
See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard C.
Rollin D. Salisbury, A.M., LL.D. r
Geologist in charge of Pleistocene Geology of New Jersey. Dean of Ogden (Grad.) J United States: Geology {in
School of Science and Head of the Department of Geography in the University of 1 part).
-j Troy and Troad {in part).
Chicago.
Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Ronald John McNeill, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Formerly Editor of the St James's -
Gazette (London).
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas.
Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and
Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Litera- "
ture of China; &c.
Richard Lydekker, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer ■
of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c.
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 75 13-1900; The First Romanovs,
1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and_Russia from 1469
to 1796; &c.
R. Phene Spiers, F.S.A. , F.R.I.B.A..
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, .
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c.
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.). r
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. J Veneti;
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff ; and Fellow of Gonville 1 Vestini.
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. [
J Trilobites.
' Tone, Theobald Wolfe;
Tyler, Wat;
Ulster, Earls of.
Tseng Kuo-fan.
Toxodontia;
Tylopoda;
Ungulata.
Torkenskjold, Peder;
Torstensson, Count;
Valdemar I., II. and IV. of
Denmark;
Verboezy, Istvan.
Tower;
Tracery;
Triumphal Arch;
Vault.
Roland Truslove, M.A.
Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew
and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic
Inscriptions- The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on
Old Testament History Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c.
{
Troyes.
Tree-Worship;
Uzziah.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xm
s. m. c.
S. M. E.-W.
S.N.
T. As.
Sydney Monckton Copeman, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.R.S.
Medical Inspector to H.M. Local Government Board, London. Medical Lecturer
on Public Health at Westminster Hospital. Lt.-Col. and Divisional Sanitary
Officer, 1st London Division, Territorial Force. Milroy Lecturer, Royal College of"
Physicians, London, 1898. Author of Vaccination, its Natural History and Patho-
logy ; &c.
Sir Sydney Marow Eardley-Wilmot.
Rear-Admiral (retired). Commanded H.M.S. " Dolphin " in Red Sea, 1885-1886,
and assisted in the defence of Suakin. Superintendent of Ordnance Stores,
1 902-1 909. Author of Life of Vice- Admiral Lord Lyons; Our Navy for a Thousand
Years; &c.
Simon Newcomb, LL.D., D.Sc.
See the biographical article: Newcomb, Simon.
Vaccination.
Torpedo.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt.
Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of
Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member
of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topo-
graphy of the Roman Campagna.
T. A. A.
T. A. I.
T. C. C.
Thomas Andrew Archer, M.A.
Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c.
Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
Chamberlin, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., Sc.D., F.G.S.,
{Uranus {Astronomy);
Venus {Astronomy).
Tortona; Trapani;
Trasimene, Lake; Trebula;
Turin; Turris Libisonis;
Tuscany: Geography;
Tuseulum; Tyndaris;
Udine; Umbria {Modern);
Valeria, Via; Varia; Vasto;
Veii; Veleia; Velia;
Velletri; Venafrum; Venusia;
Vercelli; Verona {in part);
Vesuvius {in part).
"[Ursula, St {in part).
\ Unemployment; Vagrancy.
T. E. H.
T. F. C.
T. H.
T. S.
T. Se.
V. C*
V. M.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. He.
W. A. P.
W. Bo.
Thomas Chrowder
F.A.A.S., &c.
Professor and Head of Department of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, J United States: Geology
University of Chicago. Investigator of Fundamental Problems of Geology at the ~\
Carnegie Institute. Consulting Geologist, United States and Wisconsin Geological
Survey. Author of Geology of Wisconsin; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D.
Salisbury) ; &c.
Thomas Erskine Holland, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C.
Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of
International Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher
of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Juris-
prudence; Alberici Gentilis de jure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties
in a Maritime War; &c.
Theodore Freylinghuysen Collier, PhD ( Urban VII. and VIII.
Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. (_
United States:
{in part).
Treaties;
Vacarius.
Thomas Hodgkin, D.C.L., Litt.D.
See the biographical article : Hodgkin, Thomas.
The Right Honourable Lord Shaw of Dunfermline.
Lord of Appeal. M.P. for Hawick District, 1892-1909. Lord Advocate for Scotland, -
1905-1909.
Thomas Seccombe, M.A.
Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, .
University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of
Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c.
Sir Vincent Henry Penalver Caillard.
Director of Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd.; and the London, Chatham & Dover
Railway. Formerly President of the Ottoman Public Debt Council, and Financial
Representative of England, Holland and Belgium in Constantinople. Author of
Imperial Fiscal Reform.
Vandals {in part).
Vergniaud, Pierre.
Vanbrugh, Sir John.
Chevalier of the Legion "
Victor Charles Mahillon.
Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels,
of Honour.
Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1 880-1 889.
William Abbot Herdman, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. President of the
Linnean Society, 1904. Author of Report upon the Tunicata collected during the
Voyage of the " Challenger "; &c.
Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c.
Wilhelm Bousset, D.Th.
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.
J Turkey: Geography and
Statistics.
Trombone {in part);
Trumpet {in part).
f Topfler, Rodolphe; Trent;
"j Tschudi; Unterwalden;
I Uri; Valais; Var; Vaud.
■j Tunicata.
f Utrecht: Province {in part);
J Valet; Vavassor;
1 Verona, Congress of;
I Vestments.
[ Valentinus and the
1 Valentinians.
XIV
W. E. G.
W. F. C.
W. G.*
W. L. F.
W. McD.
W. MacD.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
w.
M. D
w.
P. C.
w.
R. M.
W. R. S.
Sir William Edmund Garstin, G.C.M.G.
Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation,
Egypt, and Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt.
William Feilden Craies, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition).
Walcot Gibson, D.Sc, F.G.S.
Geologist on H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the S.
Transvaal ; Mineral Wealth of Africa ; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining ; &c.
Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History
of Reconstruction ; &c.
William McDougall, M.A.
Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly Fellow
of St John's College, Cambridge.
William MacDonald, LL.D.
Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. Professor of
History and Political Science at Bowdoin, 1893-1901. Author of History and
Government of Maine ; &c. Editor of Select Documents illustrative of the History of
the United States; &c.
William Morris Davis, D.Sc, Ph.D.
Professor of Geology in Harvard University.
Geography. Author of Physical Geography ; &c.
William Prideaux Courtney.
See the biographical article: Courtney, L. H. Baron.
William Richard Morfill, M.A. (d. 1910).
Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. . \ Author of Russia;
Slavonic Literature ; &c.
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson.
{
{
Tsana (in part).
Trade Marks {in part);
Treason; Trial; Venue.
Transvaal: Geology.
\ Union League of America,
1 Tne -
Trance.
Formerly Professor of Physical
Tyler, John;
Van Buren, Martin.
j United States: Physical
1 Geography and Climate.
j Tooke, John Home.
\ Turgueniev, Ivan.
J Tyre {in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Tonga.
Tongking.
Toronto.
Toul.
Toulouse.
Touraine.
Tours.
Townshend, Charles.
Townshend, Viscount.
Trade, Board of.
Trade Organization.
Trade Unions (in part).
Transylvania.
Transylvanian Mountains.
Trap.
Trenck, Franz.
Trendelenburg, Friedrieh.
Trenton (N.J.).
Tresham, Francis.
Trespass.
Triazines.
Trieste.
Trinidad.
Tristan da Cunha.
Trollope, Anthony.
Tromp.
Tropine.
Troy (N.Y.).
Truffle.
Trust and Trustees.
Tschaikovsky, Peter.
Tuareg.
Tuke (Family).
Tulip.
Tungsten.
Tunis.
Turgot, Anne Robert
Jacques.
Turkey: History.
Turpentine.
Tweeddale, Marquesses of.
Tyndale, William.
Tyndall, John.
Tynemouth.
Typewriter.
Typhoid Fever.
Typhus Fever.
Tyrone.
Ulfeldt, Korfits.
Ulm.
Ulrich.
Umbelliferae.
United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland.
United Presbyterian Church.
United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh.
United States Naval Acade-
my.
Upsala.
Uranium.
Urbino.
Urea.
Urinary System.
Ursins, Princess des.
Urticaceae.
Uruguay.
Usher, James.
Uskoks.
Utah.
Utica (N.Y.).
Uxmal.
Valencia (Province).
Valencia (City).
Valens.
Valentinian I.-II.
Valerian.
Valla, Lorenzo.
Valladolid.
Valtellina.
Vanadium.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius.
Vane, Sir Henry.
Vanilla.
Vauban.
Vaughan, Henry.
Vauvenargues, Marquis de,
Venezuela: History.
Venus's Fly-trap.
Verdun.
Vermont.
Vernet (Family).
Verney (Family).
Vernon, Edward.
Versailles.
Vespasian.
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXVII
TONALITE, in petrology, a rock of the diorite class, first
described from Monte Adamello near Tonale in the Eastern
Alps. It may be described as a quartz-diorite containing
biotite and hornblende in nearly equal proportions. The prin-
cipal felspar is plagioclase, but orthoclase occurs also, usually
in small amount. Those varieties which are rich in orthoclase,
in addition to plagioclase, have been called quartz-monzonites
or adamellites, but a better term is grano-diorite, which has
been very generally adopted in America for rocks which are
intermediate in character between the granites and the diorites.
The hornblende of the diorites is green, sometimes with a tinge
of brown; the biotite is always brown and strongly pleochroic.
Often these two minerals are clustered together irregularly or in
parallel growths. They have generally a fairly strong tendency
to idiomorphism, but may sometimes enclose plagioclase fel-
spar in ophitic manner. Both of them decompose to chlorite,
epidote and carbonates. The plagioclase felspar, which may
form more than one-half of the rock, is andesine or oligoclase;
simple crystals are rare, the majority being complex growths
with centres of felspar rich in lime, while in the external zones the
proportion of soda felspar increases greatly. The inner portions
have often well-defined, but very irregular, boundaries, and are
sometimes sponge-like, with the cavities filled up with a later,
more acid, deposit. This seems to indicate that growth has
taken place in stages, alternating with periods when the
crystallized felspar was eroded or partly dissolved. The ortho-
clase sometimes forms irregular plates enclosing individuals
of plagioclase. Quartz occurs both in irregular simple grains
and as micropegmatite. Occasionally pale green pyroxene is
visible in the centre of crystals of dark green hornblende. The
accessory minerals apatite, magnetite and zircon are always
present, and very common also are orthite in coffee-coloured
zonal prisms practically always encircled by yellow epidote,
and reddish-brown crystals of sphene, simple or twinned.
In external appearance the tonalites are very like the granites
but usually darker in colour. Tonalite-porphyrites often accom-
pany them, having the same composition but with phenocrysts
of felspar, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a fine-grained ground-
mass. Veins and threads of fine grey rock, mainly composed of
quartz and felspar, often intersect tonalite-masses and have been
called tonalite-aplites, seeing that they bear the same relations to
aplites as ihe aplites do to the granites. They contain more soda-
lime felspar than the normal aplites. Towards their margins
the larger alpine masses of tonalite often assume banded or gneissic
facies, due apparently to movement during intrusion.
XXVII. I
In eastern Tirol another tonalite occurs at Rieserferner ; there
is also a well-known mass of this rock near Traversella. In the south
of Scotland (Galloway district) tonalites accompany hornblende-
and biotite-granites, hornblende- and augite-diorites. The newer
granites of the Highlands of Scotland in many places pass into
tonalites, especially near their margins, and similar rocks occur in
Ireland in a few places. Grano-diorites have been described from
California, and rocks of very similar character occur in the Andes,
Patagonia and the lesser Antilles. Tonalites are also said to be
frequent among the igneous rocks of Alaska. (J. S. F.)
TONAWANDA, a city of Erie county, New York, U.S.A.,
about n m. by rail N. of Buffalo on the Niagara River at the
mouth of Tonawanda Creek (opposite North Tonawanda),
and on the Erie Canal. Pop. (1900), 7421, of whom 1834 were
foreign-born; (1010 census), 8290. Tonawanda is served
by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways,
and is connected with Buffalo, Niagara Falls and Lockport by
electric lines. The industries depend chiefly on electric power
generated by the Niagara Falls, 1 1 m. distant. There are rolling-
mills, planing-mills, ship-yards, and blast-furnaces, and among
the manufactures are wooden ware, flour and paper. The
surrounding region was the scene of hostilities during the Seven
Years' War, and the War of 181 2. The first permanent white
settlement was made about 1809, and Tonawanda was in-
corporated as a village in 1854 and was chartered as a city in
1903. The name of the city is an Indian word said to mean
" swift water."
TONBRIDGE [Ttjnbridge], a market town in the Tonbridge
or south-western parliamentary division of Kent, England,
29^ m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 12,736. It is situated
on rising ground above the river Medway, which is crossed by a
stone bridge erected in 1775. The church of St Peter and St
Paul, chiefly Decorated and Perpendicular, with some portions
of earlier date, was completely restored in 1879. There are
remains of an ancient castle, consisting chiefly of a finely pre-
served gateway, of the Early Decorated period, flanked by two
round towers. The castle was formerly defended by three
moats, one of them formed by the Medway. Tonbridge School
was founded by Sir Andrew Judd, lord mayor of London in
the time of Edward VI., and was rebuilt in 1865, remodelled
in 1880, and extended subsequently. Ornamental articles of
inlaid wood, called Tonbridge ware, chiefly sold at Tunbridge
Wells, are largely manufactured. There are gunpowder mills
on the banks of the Medway, and wool-stapling, brewing and
TONDERN— TONE
tanning are carried on. There is some traffic on the Medway,
which is navigable for barges.
Tonbridge owed its early importance to the castle built by
Richard, earl of Clare, in the reign of Henry I. The castle
was besieged by William Rufus, was taken by John in the wars
with the barons, and again by Prince Edward, son of Henry III.
After being in the possession of the earls of Clare and Hert-
ford, and of the earls of Gloucester, it became the property of
the Staffords, and on the attainder of the duke of Bucking-
ham in the reign of Henry VIII. was taken by the Crown. It
was dismantled during the Civil War. The lords of the castle
had the right of attending the archbishops of Canterbury on
state occasions as chief butlers.
TONDERN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, on the Widane, 8 m. from the North Sea at
Hoyer, opposite the island of Sylt, and 42 m. by rail N.W. from
Flensburg. Pop. (1900), 4244. Tondern was in early days a
seaport, but since the reclamation of the marshes and the dredg-
ing of the Widane navigation has ceased, and vessels load and
unload at Hoyer, with which the place has direct railway com-
munication. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce
and cattle, and there is an important horse market.
In the village of Galhus, lying about 4 m. N., were discovered,
in 1639 and 1734 respectively, two golden horns of the Scandi-
navian period; these were stolen in 1802 from the Museum of
Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, where they had been
treasured, and have never been recovered.
See Karstens, Die Stadt Tondern (Tondern, 1861).
TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798), Irish rebel, the
son of Peter Tone, a Dublin coachmaker, was born in Dublin
on the 20th of June 1763. His grandfather was a small
farmer in county Kiidare, and his mother was the daughter of
a captain in the merchant service. Though entered as a student
at Trinity College, Dublin, Tone gave little attention to study,
his inclination being for a military career; but after eloping
with Matilda Witherington, a girl of sixteen, he took his degree
in 1786, and read law in London at the Middle Temple and after-
wards in Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1789. Though
idle, Tone had considerable ability. Chagrined at finding no
notice taken of a wild scheme for founding a military colony
in the South Seas which he had submitted to Pitt, he turned to
Irish politics. An able pamphlet attacking the administration
of the marquess of Buckingham in 1790 brought him to the
notice of the Whig club; and in September 1.791 he wrote a
remarkable essay over the signature " A Northern Whig," of
which 10,000 copies are said to have been sold. The principles
of the French Revolution were at this time being eagerly em-
braced in Ireland, especially among the Presbyterians of Ulster,
and two months before the appearance of Tone's essay a great
meeting had been held in Belfast, where republican toasts
had been drunk with enthusiasm, and a resolution in favour
of the abolition of religious disqualifications had given the first
sign of political sympathy between the Roman Catholics and
the Protestant dissenters of the north. The essay of " A
Northern Whig " emphasized the growing breach between the
Whig patriots like Flood and Grattan, who aimed at Catholic
emancipation and parliamentary reform without disloyalty
to the connexion with England, and the men who desired to
establish a separate Irish republic. Tone expressed in his
pamphlet unqualified contempt for the constitution which
Grattan had so triumphantly extorted from the English govern-
ment in 1782; and, himself a Protestant, he urged co-operation
between the different religious sects in Ireland as the only
means of obtaining complete redress of Irish grievances.
In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical
policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell (1767—
1803), Napper Tandy (q.v.) and others, the society of the " United
Irishmen." The original purpose of this society was no more
than the formation of a political union between Roman Catholics
and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of
parliamentary reform; it was only when that object appeared
to be unattainable by constitutional methods that the majority
of the members adopted the more uncompromising opinions which
Wolfe Tone held from the first, and conspired to establish an
Irish republic by armed rebellion. Tone himself admitted
that with him hatred of England had always been " rather an
instinct than a principle," though until his views should become
more generally accepted in Ireland he was prepared to work
for reform as distinguished from revolution. But he desired
to root out the popular respect for the names of Charlemont
and Grattan, and to transfer to more violent leaders the conduct
of the national movement. Grattan was a reformer and a
patriot without a tincture of democratic ideas; Wolfe Tone was
a revolutionary whose principles were drawn from the French
Convention. Grattan's political philosophy was allied to that
of Edmund Burke; Tone was a disciple of Danton and Thomas
Paine.
Democratic principles were gaining ground among the Roman
Catholics as well as the Presbyterians. A quarrel between the
moderate and the more advanced sections of the Roman Catholic
Committee led, in December 1791, to the secession of sixty-eight
of the former, led by Lord Kenmare; and the direction of the
committee then passed to more violent leaders, of whom the
most prominent was John Keogh, a Dublin tradesman. The
active participation of the Roman Catholics in the movement
of the United Irishmen was strengthened by the appointment
of Tone as paid secretary of the Roman Catholic Committee in
the spring of 1792. When the legality of the Roman Catholic
Convention in 1792 was called in question by the government,
Tone drew up for the committee a statement of the case on which
a favourable opinion of counsel was obtained; and a sum of
£1500 with a gold medal was voted to Tone by the Convention
when it dissolved itself in April 1793. Burke and Grattan were
anxious that provision should be made for the education of
Irish Roman Catholic priests at home, to preserve them from
the contagion of Jacobinism in France; Wolfe Tone, " with an
incomparably juster forecast," as Lecky observes, " advocated
the same measure for exactly opposite reasons." He rejoiced
that the breaking up of the French schools by the revolution
had rendered necessary the foundation of Maynooth College,
which he foresaw would draw the sympathies of the clergy into
more democratic channels. In 1794 the United Irishmen,
persuaded that their scheme of universal suffrage and equal
electoral districts was not likely to be accepted by any party in
the Irish parliament, began to found their hopes on a French
invasion. An English clergyman named William Jackson, a
man of infamous notoriety who had long lived in France, where
he had imbibed revolutionary opinions, came to Ireland to
nogotiate between the French committee of public safety and
the United Irishmen. For this emissary Tone drew up a
memorandum on the state of Ireland, which he described as
ripe for revolution; the paper was betrayed to the government
by an attorney named Cockayne to whom Jackson had impru-
dently disclosed his mission; and in April 1794 Jackson was
arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United
Irishmen, including Reynolds and Hamilton Rowan, immediately
fled the country; the papers of the United Irishmen were seized;
and for a time the organization was broken up. Tone, who had
not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained
in Ireland till after the trial and suicide of Jackson in April
1795. Having friends among the government party, including
members of the Beresford family, he was enabled to make terms
with the government, and in return for information as to -what
had passed between Jackson, Rowan and himself he was per-
mitted to emigrate to America, where he arrived in May 1795.
Taking up his residence at Philadelphia, he wrote a few months
later to Thomas Russell expressing unqualified dislike of the
American people, whom he was disappointed to find no more
truly democratic in sentiment and no less attached to order and
authority than the English; he described George Washington
as a " high-flying aristocrat," and he found the aristocracy of
money in America still less to his liking than the European
aristocracy of birth.
Tone did not feel himself bound in honour by his compact
TONGA
with the government at home to abstain from further conspiracy;
and finding himself at Philadelphia in the congenial company
of Reynolds, Rowan and Napper Tandy, he undertook a mission
to Paris to persuade the French government to send an expedi-
tion to invade Ireland. In February 1796 he arrived in Paris
and had interviews with De La Croix and L. N. M. Carnot, who
were greatly impressed by his energy, sincerity and ability. A
commission was given him as adjutant-general in the French
army, which he hoped might protect him from the penalty of
treason in the event of capture by the English; though he himself
claimed the authorship of a proclamation said to have been issued
by the United Irishmen, enjoining that all Irishmen taken with
arms in their hands in the British service should be instantly
shot; and he supported a project for landing a thousand criminals
in England, who were to be commissioned to burn Bristol and
commit any other atrocity in their power. He drew up two
memorials representing that the landing of a considerable
French force in Ireland would be followed by a general rising
of the people, and giving a detailed account of the condition of
the country. The French directory, which possessed informa-
tion from Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) and Arthur O'Connor
confirming Tone, prepared to despatch an expedition under
Hoche. On the 15th of December 1796 the expedition, consist-
ing of forty-three sail and carrying about 15,000 men with a
large supply of war material for distribution in Ireland, sailed
from Brest. Tone, who accompanied it as " Adjutant-general
Smith," had the greatest contempt for the seamanship of the
French sailors, which was amply justified by the disastrous
result of the invasion. Returning to France without having
effected anything, Tone served for some months in the French
army under Hoche; and in June 1797 he took part in prepara-
tions for a Dutch expedition to Ireland, which was to be sup-
ported by the French. But the Dutch fleet was detained in the
Texel for many weeks by unfavourable weather, and before it
eventually put to sea in October, only to be crushed by Duncan
in the battle of Camperdown, Tone had returned to Paris; and
Hoche, the chief hope of the United Irishmen, was dead. Bona-
parte, with whom Tone had several interviews about this time,
was much less disposed than Hoche had been to undertake in
earnest an Irish expedition; and when the rebellion broke out
in Ireland in 1798 he had started for Egypt. When, therefore,
Tone urged the directory to send effective assistance to the Irish
rebels, all that could be promised was a number of small raids
to descend simultaneously on different points of the Irish coast.
One of these under Humbert succeeded in landing a force in
Killala Bay, and gained some success in Connaught before it was
subdued by Lake and Cornwallis, Wolfe Tone's brother Matthew
being captured, tried by court-martial, and hanged; a second,
accompanied by Napper Tandy {q.v.), came to disaster on the
coast of Donegal; while Wolfe Tone took part in a third, under
Admiral Bompard, with General Hard)' in command of a force
of about 3000 men, which encountered an English squadron
near Lough Swilly on the 12th of October 1798. Tone, who was
on board the " Hoche," refused Bompard's offer of escape in a
frigate before the action, and was taken prisoner when the
" Hoche " was forced to surrender. When the prisoners were
landed a fortnight later Sir George Hill recognized Tone in the
French adjutant-general's uniform. At his trial by court-martial
in Dublin, Tone made a manly straightforward speech, avowing
his determined hostility to England and his design " by fair and
open war to procure the separation of the two countries," and
pleading in virtue of his status as a French officer to die by the
musket instead of the rope. He was, however, sentenced to be
hanged on the 12th of November; but on the nth he cut his
throat with a penknife, and on the 19th of November 1798 he
died of the wound.
Although Wolfe Tone had none of the attributes of greatness,
" he rises," says Lecky, "far above the dreary level of common-
place which Irish conspiracy in general presents. The tawdry
and exaggerated rhetoric; the petty vanity and jealousies; the
weak sentimentalism ; the utter incapacity for proportioning
means to ends, and for grasping the stern realities of things,
which so commonly disfigure the lives and conduct even of the
more honest members of his class, were wholly alien to his nature.
His judgment of men and things was keen, lucid and masculine,
and he was alike prompt in decision and brave in action." In
his later years he overcame the drunkenness that was habitual
to him in youth; he developed seriousness of character and unsel-
fish devotion to what he believed was the cause of patriotism;
and he won the respect of men of high character and capacity
in France and Holland. His journals, which were written for
his family and intimate friends, give a singularly interesting
and vivid picture of life in Paris in the time of the directory.
They were published after his death by his son, William Theobald
Wolfe Tone (1 791-1828), who was educated by the French
government and served with some distinction in the armies of
Napoleon, emigrating after Waterloo to America, where he died,
in New York City, on the 10th of October 1828.
See Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone by himself, continued by his son,
with his political writings, edited by W. T. Wolfe Tone (2 vols.,
Washington, 1826), another edition of which is entitled Auto-
biography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, edited with introduction by
R. Barry O'Brien (2 vols., London, 1893); R. R. Madden, Lives of
the United Irishmen (7 vols., London, 1842) ; Alfred Webb, Com-
pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878); W. E. H. Lecky,
History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols, iii., iv., v. (cabinet
ed., 5 vols., London, 1892). (R. J. M.)
TONGA, or Friendly Islands (so called by Captain Cook),
an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. S.S.W.
of Samoa and 250 m. E.S.E. of Fiji. The long chain of islands,
numbering about 150, though with a collective land area of
only 385 sq. m., extends from 18° 5' to 22 29' S. and 174 to
176 10' W., and is broken into three groups, viz. the Tonga to
the south, Hapai (which again is divided into three clusters) in
the centre and Vavau to the north. The largest island is
Tongatabu (the Sacred Tonga, Tasman's Amsterdam) in the
southern group, measuring about 25 by 10 m., and 165 sq. m.
in area, which contains the capital, Nukualofa. The vegetation
is rich and beautiful, but the scenery tame, the land seldom rising
above 60 ft.; Eua (Tasman's Middelburg), 9 m. south-east and
67 sq. m. in area, is 1078 ft. in extreme height, and much more
picturesque, being diversified by rocks and woods. Vavau,
in the northern group, is 55 sq. m. in extent and 300 ft. high.
Next to these come the coral islands Nomuka and Lifuka in
the Hapai group; Tofua, 2846 ft., Late or Lette, 1800 ft. and Kao.
3020 ft. high, which are volcanic and smaller. The numerous
islets of the central group are very fertile. It is along the western
side of the northern half of the chain that the line of volcanic
action is apparent; the islands here (of which some are active
volcanoes) are lofty. To the east the whole chain is bounded
by a profound trough in the ocean bed, which extends south-
westward, east of the Kermadec Islands, towards New Zealand.
The majority of the Tonga Islands, however, are level, averaging
40 ft. high, with hills rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally
steep. The surface is covered with a rich mould unusual in
coral islands, mixed towards the sea with sand, and having a
substratum of red or blue clay. The soil is thus very productive,
although water is scarce and bad. Barrier reefs are rare;
fringing reefs are numerous, except on the east side, which is
nearly free, and there are many small isolated reefs and volcanic
banks among the islands. If the reefs impede navigation they
form some good harbours. The best is on the south-western side
of Vavau; another is on the north of Tongatabu.. Earthquakes
are not infrequent. From 1845 to 1857 volcanic eruptions were
very violent, and islands once fertile were devastated and nearly
destroyed. A new island rose from the sea, and was at once
named " Wesley," but disappeared again. In 1886 there was
a serious volcanic eruption in the outlying island of Niuafoou,
and at the same time Falcon Reef, normally awash at high water,
discharged sufficient scoriae and pumice to form a new island
50 ft. high. In 1898 the island had been washed away, but in
1900 H.M.S. " Porpoise " found that a solid core of black rock
had been extruded 6 ft. above high water. All the volcanoes
in the group were then quiescent.
Geology. — The line of volcanic action extends along the western side
of the northern half of the chain. Some of the islands are built of
TONGA
volcanic rocks alone ; such are Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai, which
appear to be fragments of a single ancient crater, Tofua, Kao, Late,
Metis, Amargua and Falcon Island. The lava is a basic augite-
andesite. Another group of islands consists of elevated masses of
submarine volcanic deposits, upon some of which coral-reef limestone
forms a more or less complete covering; such are Tonumeia and the
Nomuka group (Mango, Tonua, Nomuka-iki). All the volcanic rocks
of these islands are submarine stratified tuffs which are penetrated
here and there by andesite or diabase dikes. The Vavau group
consists entirely of coral limestone, which is occasionally crystalline,
and contains stalactitic caves of great beauty.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate is healthy for Europeans,
being dry and cool as compared with that of Samoa and Fiji. There
are frequent alternations of temperature, which averages 75° to
77° F., though considerably higher in the wet season. Cool south-
east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, from April
to December. During the rest of the year the winds blow from
west-north-west and north, with rain and occasional destructive
hurricanes. A cyclone which devastated Vavau in April 1900 was the
most destructive ever recorded in the group, but hurricanes are rare.
The average rainfall for the year is about 80 ins. The vegetation
•5 similar to that of Fiji, but more definitely Indo-Malayan in
character; it embraces all the plants of the groups to the east with
many that are absent there. Ferns abound, some of them peculiar,
and tree ferns on the higher islands, and all the usual fruit trees
and cultivated plants of the Pacific are found. There are several
kinds of valuable timber trees. The only indigenous land mammalia
are a small rat and a few curious species of bats. The dog and the
pig were no doubt introduced by man. Of birds some 30 kinds
are known, an owl being the only bird of prey; parrots, pigeons,
kingfishers, honey-suckers, rails, ducks, and other water birds are
numerous. There are snakes and small lizards, but no frogs or
toads. Of insects there are relatively few kinds; but ants, beetles
and mosquitoes abound. The fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are
varied and numerous. Turtle and sea-snakes abound, as do mollusca,
of which a few are peculiar, and zoophytes.
Inhabitants. — The population of the archipelago is about
19,000, of whom about 370 are whites or half-castes. The
natives, a branch of the Polynesian race, are the most progressive
and most intellectual in the Pacific Islands, except the
Hawaiians. They have exercised an influence over distant
neighbours, especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their
numbers. Their conquests have extended as far as Niue, or
Savage Island, 200 m. east, and to various other islands to the
north. In Captain Cook's time Poulaho, the principal chief,
considered Samoa to be within his dominions. This pre-
eminence may perhaps be due to an early infusion of Fijian
blood: it has been observed that such crosses are always more
vigorous than the pure races in these islands; and this influence
seems also traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have
been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Various
customs, traditions and names of places also point to a former
relation with Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave
the Tongans material as well as moral advantages over their
neighbours. Crime is infrequent, and morality, always above
the Polynesian average, has improved. The people have strict
notions of etiquette and gradations of rank. In disposition
they are amiable and courteous, but arrogant, lively, inquisitive
and inclined to steal — their attacks in earlier days on Europeans,
when not caused by misunderstandings, being due probably
to their coveting property which to them was of immense value.
They are brave and not unenergetic, though the soft climate
and the abundance of food discourage industry. They value
children, and seldom practised infanticide, and cannibalism was
rare. Their women are kindly treated, and only do the lighter
work. Agriculture, which is well understood, is the chief
industry. They are bold and skilful sailors and fishermen;
other trades, as boat and house building, carving, cooking, net
and mat making, are usually hereditary. Their houses are
slightly built, but the surrounding ground and roads are laid
out with great care and taste.
There were formerly (till the early 18th century) two sovereigns;
the higher of these, called Tui Tonga (chief of Tonga), was greatly
reverenced but enjoyed little power. The real ruler and the chief
officers of the state were members of the Tubou family, from which
also the wife of the Tui Tonga was always chosen, whose descendants
through the female line had special honours and privileges, under
the title of tamaha, recalling the vasu of Fiji. The explanation
of the dual kingship is probably this — the Tui Tonga were regarded
as the direct descendants of the original head of the family from
which the people sprang; regarded with reverence, and possessing
unlimited power, they came to misuse this and discontent resulted,
whereupon, to protect themselves, they appointed an executive
deputy. Below these came the Eiki or chiefs, and next to them the
class called Matabule. These were the hereditary counsellors and
companions of the chiefs, and conveyed to the people the decisions
formed at their assemblies. They also directed the national cere-
monies, and preserved the popular traditions. While, under the
control of Europeans, the Tongans have shown some aptitude for
administration, they fail when left to themselves. They pick up
superficial acquirements with astonishing ease, but seem to be
incapable of mastering any subject. They write shorthand, but
speak no English; they have a smattering of higher mathematics,
yet are ignorant of book-keeping. Their government, effective
enough when dealing with natives, breaks down in all departments
concerned with Europeans, and becomes the prey of designing
traders. Their ambition is to rank as a civilized state, and the
flattery lavished on them by their teachers has spoiled them.
There are some ancient stone remains in Tongatabu, burial places
(feitoka) built with great blocks, and a remarkable monument
consisting of two large upright blocks morticed to carry a transverse
one, on which was formerly a circular basin of stone.
Administration and Trade. — In May 1900 the group became a
British protectorate under the native flag, the appointment of
the consul and agent being transferred to the government of
New Zealand. In 1904 the financial and legal administration
was put into the hands of the British High Commissioner for
the Western Pacific. The native king is assisted by a legislative
assembly consisting, in equal numbers, of hereditary nobles and
popular (elected) representatives. The wisdom of King George
Tubou in refusing to alienate an acre of land, except upon lease,
has resulted in Tonga having been the last native state in tiie
Pacific to lose its independence. There is a revenue of about
£21,000 annually derived chiefly from a poll-tax, leases and
customs. The principal exports are copra, bananas, oranges and
fungus, and the annual values of exports and imports are £80,000
and £70,000 respectively on an average, though both fluctuate
considerably. British coin is legal tender (since 1905). There
are five churches in Tonga — the Free Wesleyaris, embracing the
great majority of the inhabitants, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics,
and Seventh Day Adventists. These last are few; a still smaller
number of natives are nominally Anglicans.
History. — In 1616 the vessels of Jacob Lemaire and Willem
Cornells Schouten reached the island of Niuatobutabu, and had
a hostile encounter with the natives. In 1643 Abel Tasman
arrived at Tongatabu and was more fortunate. The next visit
was that of Samuel Wallis in 1767, followed in 1773 by that of
Captain Cook. In 1777 Cook returned, and stayed seven weeks
among the islands. In 1799 a revolution, having its origin in
jealousy between two natives of high rank, broke out. Civil
war dragged on for many years — long after the deaths of the
first leaders — but Taufaahau, who became king in 1845 tinder
the name of George Tubou I., proved a strong ruler. In 1822
a Methodist missionary had arrived in the island, and others
followed. The attempt to introduce a new faith led to renewed
strife, this time between converts and pagans, but King George
(who fully appreciated the value of intercourse with foreigners)
supported the missionaries, and by 1852 the rebels were subdued.
The missionaries, finding their position secure, presently began
to take action in political affairs, and persuaded the king to
grant a constitution to the Tongans, who welcomed it with a
kind of childish enthusiasm, but were far from fitted to receive
it. A triennial parliament, a cabinet, a privy council, and an
elaborate judicial system were established, and the cumbrous
machinery was placed in the hands of a " prime minister," a
retired Wesleyan missionary, Mr Shirley Baker. Treaties of
friendship were concluded with Germany, Great Britain, and
the United States of America. Baker induced the king to break
off his connexion with the Wesleyan body in Sydney, and to set
up a state church. Persecution of members of the old church
followed, and in 1890 the missionary-premier had to be removed
from the group by the high commissioner. He afterwards
returned to initiate a new sect called the " Free Church of
England," which for a time created further divisions among the
people.
King George Tubou died in 1893 at the age of ninety-six, and
was succeeded by his great-grandson under the same title.
TONGKING
Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried
out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable
of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by
which the king placed his kingdom under British protection.
See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin,
Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827); Vason,
Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815); A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou
Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893) ; B. H. Thomson, The Diversions
of a Prime Minister (London, 1894).
TONGKING, 1 a province of French Indo-China, and protec-
torate of France, situated between 20 and 235 N. and 102 and
io8j° E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang-
Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and
E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The
population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese
and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking com-
prises three regions: (1) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river),
which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of
the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain
within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two moun-
tainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running
approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating
the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those
of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus
and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the
mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is
the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan,
enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows
thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking.
It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the
French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that,
forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of
Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and
expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and
gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however,
has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is
constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty
miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is
impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of
the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks.
Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam
launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits
of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay
the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black
river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents
rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of
waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into
the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and
below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song-
Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches,
communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides
and the Canal des Bambous.
The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese
frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near .that of Annam, has a length of
375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it
is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The
bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao,
and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations.
Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast
is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial
deposits of the delta accumulate.
The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that
of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August,
the temperature ranges between 82 and ioo° F., but from October
to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in
August and September.
In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant
and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are
common.^ The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties
of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and
in general the flora approximate to that of southern China.
The Annamese (see Annam), who form the bulk of the population
of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the
1 See also Indo-China, French, and Annam.
rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts —
the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Th6s the
regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs
are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square
foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, arid their eyes are »
often almost straight.
Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incom-
parably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there
are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree {Daphne odora),
cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation
of silkworms is of growing importance.
Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher
regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these
only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of
inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are
coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao.
Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and
Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved
and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the
chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manu-
facture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a wide-
spread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit.
The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of
£3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven
goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and
watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at £1,393,674
in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and
badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats,
gamboge.
The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the
province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance,
reaching in 1905 a value of £1,146,000. This trade is entirely in
the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and
cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important
elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs
duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao,
thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with em-
bankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land
communication of the region. (For railways, see Indo-China,
French.)
The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct admin-
istration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protector-
ate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam
was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the
native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control
of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over j the pro-
tectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France.
Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which
there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories,
the latter administered by commandants. In each province there
is a council of native " notables," elected by natives and occupied
with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works.
There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) for
the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local
government and educational system are analogous to those of Annam
(g.D.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a
criminal court sit at Hanoi ; there are tribunals of first instance and
tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both
parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of
the An-Sat or native judge of the province.
The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904: —
Receipts.
Expenditure.
1899
1904
£
461,235
756,648
£
427,993
494,034
The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially
the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to £417,723,
while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies
and general staff, public works and the civil guard.
For the early history of Tongking, see Annam and Indo-China,
French. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801,
when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his
sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of
Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annamese
territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking,
attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They
found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances
arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the
disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German
War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the
return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hos-
tilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his
expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking,
TONGKING
and the reported wealth of the country added the powerful
motive of self-interest to the yearnings of patriotism. Already
Jean Dupuis, a trader who in the pursuit of his calling had
penetrated into Yun-nan, was attempting to negotiate for the
passage up the Song-Koi of himself and a cargo of military stores
for the Chinese authorities in Yun-nan. Meanwhile Captain
Senez appeared from Saigon, having received instructions to
open the route to French commerce. But to neither the trader
nor the naval officer would the Tongkingese lend a favourable
ear, and in default of official permission Dupuis determined to
force his way up the river. This he succeeded in doing, but
arrived too late, for he found the Taiping rebellion crushed and
the stores no longer wanted.
On the return of Dupuis to Hanoi, the Tongkingese general
at that place wrote to the king of Annam, begging him to induce
the governor of Cochin-China to remove the intruder. An order
was thereupon issued calling upon Dupuis to leave the country.
This he declined to do, and, after some negotiations, Francis
Gamier with a detachment was sent to Hanoi to dp the best
he could in the difficult circumstances. Gamier threw himself
heart and soul into Dupuis's projects, and, when the Tongkingese
authorities refused to treat with him except on the subject Of
Dupuis's expulsion, he attacked the citadel in November, 1873,
and carried it by assault. Having thus secured his position,
he sent to Saigon for reinforcements, and meanwhile sent small
detachments against the five other important fortresses in the
delta (Hung-yen, Phu-Ly, Hai-Duong, Ninh-Binh and Nam-
Dinh), and captured them all. The Tongkingese now called in
the help of Lu-Vinh-Phuoc, the leader of the " Black Flags," '
who at once marched with a large force to the scene of action.
Within a few days he recaptured several villages near Hanoi,
and so threatening did his attitude appear that Gamier, who had
hurried back after capturing Nam-Dinh, made a sortie from the
citadel. The movement proved a disastrous one, and resulted
in the death of Gamier and of his second in command, Balny
d'Avricourt.
Meanwhile the news of Garnier's hostilities had alarmed the
governor of Saigon, who, having no desire to be plunged into a
war, sent Philastre, an inspector of native affairs, to offer
apologies to the king of Annam. When, however, on arriving
in Tongking Philastre heard of Garnier's death, he took command
of the French forces, and at once ordered the evacuation of
Nam-Dinh, Ninh-Binh and Hai-Duong — a measure which,
however advantageous it may have been to the French at the
moment, was most disastrous to the native Christian population,
the withdrawal of the French being the signal for a general
massacre of the converts. In pursuance of the same policy
Philastre made a convention with the authorities (March, 1874)
by which he bound his countrymen to withdraw from the occu-
pation of the country, retaining only the right to trade on the
Song-Koi and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong, and agreed to put an
end to Dupuis's aggressive action.
For a time affairs remained in statu quo, but in 1882 Le Myre
deVillers, the governor of Cochin-China, sent Henri Riviere with
a small force to open up the route to Yun-nan by the Song-Koi.
With a curious similarity the events of Gamier s campaign were
repeated. Finding the authorities intractable, Riviere stormed
and carried the citadel of Hanoi, and then, with very slight loss,
he captured Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong, and other towns in the delta.
And once again these victories brought the Black Flags into
the neighbourhood of Hanoi. As Gamier had done, so Riviere
hurried back from Nam-Dinh on news of the threatened danger.
Like Gamier also he headed a sortie against his enemies, and like
Gamier he fell a victim to his own impetuosity (May, 1883).
In the meantime" the Annamese court had been seeking to
enlist the help of the Chinese in their contest with the French.
The tie which bound the tributary nation to the sovereign state
had been for many generations slackened or drawn closer as
circumstances determined, but it had never been entirely
dissevered, and from the Annamese point of view this was one
1 Bands of Chinese rebels who infested the mountainous region of
Tongking.
of the occasions when it was of paramount importance that it
should be acknowledged and acted upon. With much more
than usual regularity, therefore, the king despatched presents
and letters to the court of Peking, and in 1880 he sent a special
embassy, loaded with unusually costly offerings, and bearing a
letter in which his position of a tributary was emphatically
asserted. Far from ignoring the responsibility thrust upon him,
the emperor of China ordered the publication of the letter in the
Peking Gazette.
The death of Riviere and the defeat of his troops had placed
the French in a position of extreme difficulty. M. Jules Ferry,
who had become premier of France in February 1883, determined
on a vigorous forward policy. But for the moment the outlying
garrisons, except those of Nam-Dinh and Hai-Phong, had to
be withdrawn and Hanoi itself was besieged by the Black Flags.
Reinforcements brought by Admiral Courbet and General Bouet
were insufficient to do more than keep them at bay. So con-
tinued was the pressure on the garrison that Bouet determined
to make an advance upon Son-Tay to relieve the blockade. He
attacked Vong, a fortified village, but he met with such resistance
that, after suffering considerable loss, he was obliged to retreat
to Hanoi. In the lower delta fortune sided with the French,
and almost without a casualty Hai-Duong and Phu-Binh fell
into their hands. Meanwhile, in order to put more effective
pressure upon the court of Hue, Dr Harmand, commissary-
general, supported by Courbet, proceeded with a naval force to
the Hue river. They found that, though King Tu Due was dead,
his policy of resistance was maintained, and therefore stormed
the city. After a feeble defence it was taken, and Harmand
concluded a treaty with the king (August 1883) in which the
French protectorate was fully recognized, the king further
binding himself to recall the Annamese troops serving in Tong-
king, and to construct a road from Saigon to Hanoi.
Though this treaty was exacted from Annam under pressure,
the French lost no time in carrying out that part of it which
gave them the authority to protect Tongking, and Bouet again
advanced in the direction of Son-Tay. But again the resistance
he met with compelled him to retreat, after capturing the fortified
post of Palan. Meanwhile, on the determination to attack
Son-Tay becoming known in Paris, the Chinese ambassador
warned the ministry that, since Chinese troops formed part of
the garrison, he should consider it as tantamount to a declaration
of war. But his protest met with no consideration. On the
arrival of reinforcements an advance was again made; and on the
1 6th of December 1883, after some desperate fighting, Son-Tay
fell.
During 1884 the French made themselves masters of the lower
delta. Throughout the campaign Chinese regulars fought
against the French, who thus found themselves involved in war
with China. While hostilities were in progress M. Fournier, the
French consul at Tientsin, had been negotiating for peace, so
far as China was concerned, with Li Hung-chang, and in May
1884 had signed and sealed a memorandum by which the
Chinese plenipotentiary agreed that the Chinese troops should
evacuate the northern provinces of Tongking " immSdiatement."
In the following month another treaty, signed at Hue, confirmed
the French protectorate over Annam and Tongking. It was
not, however, followed by a cessation of military operations.
A misunderstanding arose between the French and the Chinese
as to the exact date for the evacuation of their posts by the
Chinese, and in June General Millot, then commander-in-chief of
the French forces, dispatched Colonel Dugenne at the head of
a strong force to occupy Lang-Son. The expedition was badly
arranged; the baggage train was far too unwieldy; and the pace
at which tLe men were made to march was too quick for that
scorching time of the year. They advanced, however, to Bac-Le,
within 25 m. of Lang-Son, when they suddenly came upon a
Chinese camp. An irregular engagement began, and, in the
pitched battle which ensued, the Chinese broke the French lines,
and drove them away in headlong flight. This brought the
military operations for the season to a close.
During the rainy season fevers of all kinds became alarmingly
TONGS— TONGUE
prevalent, and the number of deaths and of men invalided
was very large. In the meantime, however, an expedition, led
by Colonel Donnier, against the Chinese garrison at Chu, about
10 m. south-east from Lang-kep, was completely successful;
and in a battle fought near Chu the Chinese were defeated, with
a loss of 3000 killed, the French loss being only 20 killed and go
wounded. In the skirmishes which followed the French were
generally victorious, but not to such a degree as to warrant any
enlargement of the campaign.
In January 1885 large reinforcements arrived and Briere
de 1'Isle, who had succeeded Millot as commander-in-chief,
ordered an advance towards Lang-Son. The difficulties of
transport greatly impeded his movements, still the expedition
was successful. On the 6th of February three forts at Dong-
Song, with large supplies of stores and ammunition, fell into the
hands of the French. Three days' heavy fighting made them
masters of a defile on the road, and on the 13th Lang-Son was
taken, the garrison having evacuated the town just before the
entrance of the conquerors. With his usual energy General
Negrier, who commanded a division under Briere de 1'Isle,
pressed on in pursuit to Ki-Hea, and even captured the frontier
town of Cua-Ai. But Briere de 1'Isle had now to hurry back
to the relief of Tuyen-Kwan, which was doggedly resisting the
attacks of an overwhelming Chinese force, and Negrier was left
in command at Lang-Son. The withdrawal of Briere de ITsle's
division gave the Chinese greater confidence, and, though for a
time Negrier "was able to hold his own, on the 22nd and 23rd of
March he sustained a severe check between Lang-Son and
That-Ke, which was finally converted into a complete rout,
his troops being obliged to retreat precipitately through Lang-
Son to Than-Moi and Dong-Song. Briere de 1'Isle reached
Tuyen-Kwan, the garrison of which was commanded by Colonel
Domine, on the 3rd of March, and effected its relief. The
disaster at Lang-Son caused the downfall of the Ferry ministry
(March 30). Shortly afterwards Sir Robert Hart succeeded
in negotiating peace with China. By the terms agreed on at
Tientsin (June, 1885), it was stipulated that France was to take
Tongking and Annam under its protection and to evacuate
Formosa and the Pescadores. (For further history, see Indo-
China.)
See J. Dupuis, Le Tong-kin et V intervention francaise (Paris,
1898) ; C B. Norman, Tonkin or France in the Far East (London,
1884); Prince Henri d'Orleans, Autour du Tonkin (Paris, 1896);
J. Ferry, Le Tonkin et la mere-patrie (Paris, 1890); J. Chailley,
Paul Bert au Tonkin (Paris, 1887); E. Lunet de Lajonquiere,
Ethnographie du Tonkin Septentrional (Paris, 1906) ; A. Gaisman,
L'CEuvre de la France au Tonkin (Paris, 1906) ; also the bibliography
under Indo-China, French.
TONGS (0. Eng. tange, M. Eng. tonge, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange,
from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKveiv), a gripping and lifting
instrument, of which there are many forms adapted to their
specific use. Some are merely large pincers or nippers, but the
greatest number fall into three classes: the first, as in the com-
mon fire-tongs, used for picking up pieces of coal and placing
them on a fire, which have long arms terminating in small flat
circular grippers and are pivoted close to the handle; the second,
as in the sugar-tongs, asparagus tongs, and the like, consisting
of a single band of metal bent round or of two bands joined at
the head by a spring, and third, such as the blacksmith's tongs
or the crucible-tongs, in which the pivot or joint is placed close
to the gripping ends. A special form of tongs is that known as
the " lazy-tongs," consisting of a pair of grippers at the end of a
series of levers pivoted together like scissors, the whole being
closed or extended by the movement of the handles communi-
cated to the first set of levers and thence to the grippers, the
whole forming ah extensible pair of tongs for gripping and lifting
things at a distance.
TONGUE (O. Eng. tunge), in anatomy, a movable organ
situated in the floor of the mouth, and serving for the sensation
of taste besides helping in the mastication of food, in articulate
speech, and in feeling the exact position of any structure
within the mouth.
The tongue is divided into a main part or body, a base which
looks backward toward the pharynx, a dorsum or upper surface,
a root by which it is attached to the hyoid bone and floor of the
mouth, a tip which is free and an inferior free surface in contact
with the front part of the floor of the mouth and with the lower
incisor teeth. Owing to the large amount of muscle in its com-
position the shape of the tongue varies considerably from time
to time. The dorsum of the tongue is covered by stratified
squamous epithelium, and, when at rest, is convex both antero-
posteriorly and transversely; it is thickly studded with papillae,
of which four kinds are recognized.
Filiform papillae are minute conical projections covering the
whole of the dorsum, by which term the true upper surface is
meant, as well as the tip and borders of the tongue. They are very
numerous and contain a short core of subepithelial mucous mem-
brane covered by a thick coating of epithelial cells, which coating
may divide at its tip into a number of thread-like processes.
Fungiform papillae are less numerous than the last, and somewhat
resemble "button mushrooms"; they generally contain special
taste buds.
Circumvallate papillae are usually from seven to ten in number
and are arranged in the form of a V, the apex of which points down
the throat. They lie quite at the back of the upper surface of the
tongue and each consists of a little flat central mound surrounded
by a deep moat, the outer wall of which is slightly raised above the
surface, and it is to this that the papillae owe their name. Both
sides of the moat have taste buds embedded in them, while into the
bottom small serous glands open.
Foliate papillae are only vestigial in man and consist of a series
of vertical ridges occupying a small oval area on each side of the
tongue near its base and just in front of the attachment of the
anterior pillars of the fauces. (See Pharynx.)
The posterior surface or base of the tongue forms part of the anterior
wall of the pharynx and has a quite different appearance to that of
the dorsum. On it are found numerous circular or oval elevations
of the mucous membrane caused by lymphoid tissue (lymphoid
follicles), on the summit of the most of which is a mucous crypt
or depression. The division between the superior or oral surface
of the tongue and the posterior or pharyngeal is sharply marked by
a V-shaped shallow groove called the sulcus terminalis which lies
just behind and parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate
papillae. At the apex of this V is a small blind pit, the foramen
caecum. ■ -
At the lower part of the pharyngeal surface three folds of mucous
membrane, called glosso-epiglottic folds, run backward ; the middle
one passes to the centre of the front of the epiglottis, while the two
lateral ones, in modern anatomy often called pharyngo-epiglottic
folds, pass backward and outward to the fossa of the tonsil.
On the inferior free surface of the tongue, that is to say, the surface
which is seen when the mouth is looked into and the tongue turned
up, there is a median fold of mucous membrane called the fraenum
linguae, which is attached below to the floor of the mouth. On each
side of this the blue outlines of the ranine veins are seen, while close
to these a little fold on each side, known as a plica fimbriata, is often
found. It must not, however, be confused with the plica sublin-
gualis described in the article Mouth and Salivary Glands.
The substance of the tongue is composed almost entirely of striped
muscle fibres which run in different directions. Some of these
bundles, such as the superficial, deep, transverse and oblique linguales
are confined to the tongue and are spoken of as intrinsic muscles.
Other muscles, such as the hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, &c. come
from elsewhere and are extrinsic ; these are noticed under the head
of Muscular System. The arteries of the tongue are derived
from the lingual, a branch of the external carotid (see Arteries),
while the veins from the tongue return the blood, by one or more
veins on each side, into the internal jugular vein (see Veins).
The nerves to the tongue are the (1) lingual or gustatory, a branch
of the fifth (see Nerves: Cranial) which supplies the anterior two-
thirds with ordinary sensation and also, by means of the chorda
tymphani which is bound up with it, with taste sensation; (2)
the glossopharyngeal which supplies the circumvallate papillae
and posterior third of the tongue with taste and ordinary sensation;
(3) a few twigs of the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus to the
pharyngeal surface of the tongue ; and (4) the hypoglossal which is
the motor nerve to the muscles.
Embryology.
The mucous membrane covering the second and third visceral
arches fuses to form the furcula (see Respiratory System). Just
in front of this a rounded eminence appears at an early date in
the ventral wall of the pharynx to form the tuberculum impar
which is separated from the furcula by the depression known as
the sinus arcuatus. This tuberculum impar gradually grows to
form the central part of the tongue in front of the foramen
caecum, while the anterior part of the organ is derived from two
lateral swellings which appear in the floor of the mouth and surround
the tuberculum impar antero-laterally. The posterior third, or
pharyngeal part, is developed from the anterior part of the furcula
TONGUE
in the middle line, that is to say from the third visceral arch. The
sinus arcuatus becomes gradually shallower as these two parts of
the tongue grow together and eventually is indicated by the sulcus
terminalis; in the mid line, however, the isthmus of the thyroid
growB down from it, forming the thyro-glossal duct the remains of
which are seen in the foramen caecum (see Ductless Glands).
ft will be seen that the tongue is developed in connexion with the
first, second and third visceral arches, and it is therefore to be
expected that the fifth, seventh and ninth nerves which supply
those arches would help to supply it, but the vagus from the fourth
arch reaches it in addition, while the fact that most of the muscular
substance of the tongue is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve is
explained on the theory that some of the cervical skeletal muscula-
ture has grown cephalad into the tongue and has carried its nerve
with it.
Comparative Anatomy.
The tongue is present in fishes but it is an immovable swelling in
the floor of the mouth and is practically devoid of muscles. In the
hag (Myxine) among the Cyclostomata, and pike {Esox) among the
Internal jugular vein
Spinal accessory nerve |
Digastric muscle
Hypoglossal nerve
I Internal carotid artery
I Pneumogastric nerve
| | Sympathetic
Ascending pharyngeal artery
Odontoid process
Stylohyoid-
Glosso
pharyngeal nerve'
Parotid gland'
Tempore
maxillary vein
External c&rotid
artery
Styloglossus"
Ascending
palatine artery
Internal pterygoid
Epiglottis
Frenulum
epiglottidis
Masseter'
Pharyngeal portion
of tongue
Fungiform papilla
Buccinator
Fungiform papilla
(From Ambrose Birmingham in Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.)
Horizontal Section through Mouth and Pharynx at the Level of the Tonsils.
Teleostei, teeth are developed on the tongue. In the Amphibia
the tailed forms (Urodela) usually have tongues like fishes, though in
the genus Spelerpes the organ is very free and can be protruded for
a great distance. In the majority of the Anura the tongue is usually
attached close to the front of the floor of the mouth so that it can
be flapped forward with great rapidity. There are, however, two
closely allied families of frogs (Xenopodidae and Pipidae) which
form the order of Aglossa, because in them the tongue is suppressed.
In the reptiles the tongue is generally very movable, though
this is not the case in the Crocodilia and many of the Chelonia. The
forked tongues of snakes and many lizards and the highly specialized
telescopic tongue of the chameleon are familiar objects.
In birds the tongue is usually covered with horny epithelium
and is poorly supplied with muscles. When it is very protrusible,
as in the woodpecker, the movement is due to the hyoid, with the
base of the tongue attached, moving forward.
In the Mammalia the tongue is always movable by means of well-
developed extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, while papillae and glands
are numerous. The filiform papillae reach their maximum in the
feline family of the Carnivora where they convert the tongue into
a rasp by which bones can be licked clean of all flesh attached to
them.
Foliate papillae are best seen in the rodents, and when they are
well developed the circumvallate papillae are few, often only one
on each side.
In the lemurs an under tongue or sub lingua is found, which is
probably represented by the plicae fimbriatae under the human
tongue, and by some morphologists is regarded as the homologue
of the whole tongue of the lower vertebrates, the greater part of
the mammalian tongue being then looked upon as a new formation.
For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara-
tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London,
1907); C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig,
1901); A. Oppel, Lehrb. vergleich. mikroskop. Anat. der Wirbelthiere,
Teil 3 (Jena, 1900) ; Parker and Haswell, Text Book of Zoology
(London, 1897). (F. G. P.)
Surgery of the Tongue.
During infancy it is sometimes noticed that the little band of
membrane [fraenum) which binds the under part of the tongue
to the middle line of the floor of the mouth is unusually short. The
condition will probably right itself as the front part of the tongue
takes on its natural growth. In some children the tongue is so
large that it hangs out of the mouth,
scratching itself upon the teeth. This
condition is likely to be associated
with weak intellect.
Acute inflammation of the tongue
may be caused by the sting of a wasp
or by the entrance of septic germs
through a wound, and the trouble may
end in an abscess.
Chronic inflammation of the tongue
may be caused by syphilis, by the
irritation of decayed teeth or of a
badly-fitting plate of artificial teeth,
or by excessive smoking. The con-
dition is one of danger in that it may
lead eventually to the tongue becom-
ing the seat of cancer. The treatment
demands the removal of every source
of irritation. The teeth must be made
sound and smooth and must be kept
so. Smoking must be absolutely and
entirely given up, and salt, mustard,
pickles, spirits, aerated waters, and
everything else which is likely to be a
cause of irritation must be avoided.
Cancer of the tongue is the result of
chronic irritation which produces an
excessive growth of the scaly covering
of the tongue and causes an invasion
of the deeper parts of the tongue by
the scales. It is more often found in
men than women and is usually asso-
ciated with a hard swelling at one side
of the tongue — perhaps near a jagged
tooth or at the spot where the end of
the pipe-stem approaches the tongue.
The nerves of the tongue being caught
and compressed in the growth, pain
is constant and severe, and the move-
ments during mastication cause great
distress. The swelling gradually in-
creases in size and, spreading to the
floor of the mouth, hinders the free
movements of the tongue. In due
course it breaks down in the middle
and a hard-walled ulcer appears. All
this time the small scales of the cancer
are finding their way along the lymph-channels and causing a
secondary enlargement in the glands just below the jaw and along
the side of the neck. Enlargement of the cervical glands is a very
serious complication of cancer of the tongue.
The only treatment for cancer of the tongue which is at present
known in surgery is the early removal by operation. It not seldom
happens that because there is a certain amount of doubt as to the
exact nature of the growth in the early weeks delay in operating
is reasonably permitted, but during this time there is the risk ot
the cells of the disease finding their way to the lymphatic system.
Still, inasmuch as there may be great difficulty in determining the
diagnosis from tertiary syphilitic disease, a course of treatment by
iodide of potassium may well be recommended. Syphilis is often
the precursor of lingual cancer, and it is impossible to say exactly
when the syphilitic lesion becomes malignant. In the case of a
cancerous tumour of the tongue being so deeply or so widely attached
that its removal cannot be recommended, relief may be afforded by
the extraction of most, or all of the teeth, by limiting the food to the
most simple and unirritating kinds, and possibly by dividing the
great sensory nerves of the tongue.
Cancer of the tongue is now operated on in advanced cases such as in
former years would not have been dealt with by a radical operation.
An incision is made beneath the jaw and through the floor of the
Post-pharyngeal
lymphatic gland
Superior
constrictor muscle
Posterior palatine
arch
Tonsil
Pharyngo-epiglottic
fold
Anterior palatine
arch
Circumvallate
papilla
Raphe of tongue
Conical papillae
TONGUES, GIFT OF
mouth, by which the tongue is drawn out and rendered easily
accessible, the arteries being leisurely secured as the tissues are cut
across. The upper part of the gullet is plugged by a sponge so that
no blood can enter the lungs, and unimpeded respiration is provided
for by the preliminary introduction of a tube into the windpipe.
Through the incision which is made below the jaw the infected
lymphatic glands are removed. To Dr Kocher of Berne the profes-
sion and the public are indebted for this important advance in the
treatment of this disease. (E. O*.)
TONGUES, GIFT OF, or Glossolalia (y\uc<ra, tongue,
XaXeiV, speak), a faculty of abnormal and inarticulate vocal
utterance, under stress of religious excitement, which was
widely developed in the early Christian circles, and has its
parallels in other religions. In the New Testament such
experiences are recorded in Caesarea (Acts x. 46), at Corinth
(Acts xix. 6; 1 Cor. xii., xiv.), Thessalonica (1 Thess. v. 19),
Ephesus (Eph. v. 18), and universally (Mark xvi. 17). From
the epistles of Paul, who thanked God that he spake with tongues
more than all or any of his Corinthian converts, we can gather a
just idea of how he regarded this gift and of what it really was.
Firstly, then, it was a grace (charisma) of the spirit, yet not
of the holy or pure spirit only, but of evil spirits also who on
occasions had been known to take possession of the larynx of a
saint and exclaim, " Jesus is Anathema." As no one could
curse Jesus except under the influence of a devilish afflatus, so
none could say " Jesus is Lord " except he was inspired by the
Holy Spirit. But, secondly, the pneumatic utterances techni-
cally known as speaking with tongues failed to reach this level
of intelligibility; for Paul compares " a tongue " to a material
object which should merely make a noise, to a pipe or harp
twanged or blown at random without tune or time, to a trumpet
blaring idly and not according to a code of signal notes. Unless,
therefore, he that has the gift of tongues also possess the gift
of interpreting his exclamations, or unless some one present can
do so for him, he had not better exercise it in church. He is
a barbarian to others and they to him, since they cannot under-
stand what is spoken by him. Paul discriminates between the
Spirit which during these paroxysms both talks and prays to God
and the nous or understanding which informs a believer's psalm,
teaching, revelation or prophesy, and renders them intelligible,
edifying and profitable to the assembly. Accordingly Paul
lays down rules which he regarded as embodying the Lord's
commandment. A man " that speaketh in a tongue speaketh
not unto men, but unto God; for no man understandeth;" and
therefore it is expedient that he keep this gift for his private
chamber and there pour out the mysteries. In church it is best
that he should confine himself to prophesying, for that brings
to others " edification and comfort and consolation." If,
however, tongues must be heard in the public assembly, then let
not more than three of the saints exhibit the gift, and they only
in succession. Nor let them exhibit it at all, unless there is
some one present who can interpret the tongues and tell the
meeting what it all means. If the whole congregation be
talking with tongues all at once, and an unbeliever or one with
no experience of pneumatic gifts come in, what will he think,
asks Paul. Surely that " you are mad." So at Pentecost on
the occasion of the first outpouring of the Spirit the saints were
by the bystanders accused of being drunk (Acts ii. 15). In
the church meeting, says Paul, " I had rather speak five words
with my understanding, that I might instruct others also, than
ten thousand words in a tongue."
The writer of Acts ii., anxious to prove that Providence
from the first included the Gentiles in the Messianic Kingdom,
assumes that the gift of tongues was a miraculous faculty of
talking strange, languages without having previously learned
them. Augustine accordingly held that each of the disciples
talked all languages miraculously; Chrysostom that each talked
one other than his own. The Pentecostal inspiration has been
construed as a providential antithesis to the confusion of tongues
— an idea which Grotius expressed in the words: " Poena
linguarum dispersit homines; donum linguarum dispersos in
unum populum collegit." Competent critics to-day recognize
that such a view is impossible; and it has been suggested with
much probability that in the second chapter of Acts the words
in v. 5: " Now there were dwelling . . . under heaven " as well as
vv. 6-1 1 : " because that every man . . . mighty works of God "
were interpolated by Luke in the document he transcribed. 1
The faithful talking with tongues were taken by bystanders
for drunken men, but intoxicated men do not talk in languages
of which they are normally ignorant. 2
Paul on the whole discouraged glossolaly. " Desire earnestly
the greater gifts," he wrote to the Corinthians. The gift of
tongues was suitable rather to children in the faith than to the
mature. Tongues were, he felt, to cease whenever the perfect
should come; and the believer who spoke with the tongues of
men and of angels, if he had not love, was no better than the
sounding brass and clanging cymbal of the noisy heathen
mysteries. It was clearly a gift productive of much disturbance
in the Church (1 Cor. xiv. 23). He would not, however, entirely
forbid and quench it (1 Thess. v. 19), so long as decency and order
were preserved.
It is not then surprising that we hear little of it after the
apostolic age. It faded away in the great Church, and probably
Celsus was describing Montanist circles (though Origen assumed
that they were ordinary believers) when he wrote 3 of the many
Christians of no repute who at the least provocation, whether
within or without their temples, threw themselves about like
inspired persons; while others did the same in cities or among
armies in order to collect alms, roaming about cities or camps.
They were wont to cry out, each of himself, " I am God; I am
the Son of God; or I am the divine Spirit." They would indulge
in prophecies of the last judgment, and back their threats with
a string of strange, half-frantic and utterly unmeaning sounds,
the sense of which no one with any intelligence could discover;
for they were obscure gibberish, and merely furnished any fool
or impostor with an occasion to twist the utterances as he chose
to his own purposes.
In the above we get a glimpse both of the glossalist and of his
interpreter as they appeared to the outside world; and the
impression made on them is not unlike that which Paul appre-
hended would be left on outsiders by an indiscriminate use of
the gift. Tertullian early in the 3rd century testifies that
glossolaly still went on in the Montanist Church which he had
joined; for we must so interpret the following passage in his
De anima, cap. ix.: " There is among us at the present time a
sister who is endowed with the charismatic gift of revelations,
which she suffers through ecstasy in the spirit during the Sunday
service in church. She converses with angels, sometimes even
with the Lord, and both hears and see mysteries'." The magical
papyri teem with strings of senseless and barbaric words which
probably answer to what certain of the Fathers called the
language of demons. It has been suggested that we here have
recorded the utterances of glossolalists.
The attitude of Paul toward glossolaly among his converts
Strikingly resembles Plato's opinion as expressed in the Timaeus,
p. 72, of the enthusiastic ecstasies of the ancient /xavrcs (sooth-
sayer). " God," he writes, " has given the art of divination not to
the wisdom, but to the foolishness of man; for no man, when in
his wits, attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he
receives the inspired word either his intelligence is enthralled
by sleep, or he is demented by some distemper or possession.
And he who would understand what he remembers to have been
said, whether in a dream or when he was awake, by the prophetic
and enthusiastic nature, or what he has seen, must first recover
his wits; and then he will be able to explain rationally what all
1 This misunderstanding of Acts ii. has influenced the official
Roman doctrine of demoniacal possession. The Sacerdotale indi-
cates as one of the symptoms of possession the ability of the possessed
to talk other tongues than his own. Cf. the Fustis daemonum,
cap. xi. Venetus (1606): " Aligui sermonem alienum a patria sua
loguuntur etsi nunquam e laribus paternis recesserint."
2 It is noteworthy that in Eph. v. 18 Paul contrasts the being filled
with the Spirit with the foolishness of intoxication with wine, and
remarks that those filled with the Spirit speak to themselves in
psalms and hymns and spiritual songs and give thanks always for
all things.
3 Origen, Contra Celsum, vii. 9.
IO
TONK— TONNAGE
such words and apparitions mean, and what indications they
afford to this man or that, of past, present or future good and
evil. ' But, while he continues demented, he cannot judge of
the visions which he sees or the words which he utters. . . . And
for this reason it is customary to appoint diviners or interpreters
to be judges of the true inspiration." 1 From such passages
as the above we infer that the gift of tongues and of their inter-
pretation was not peculiar to the Christian Church, but was a
repetition in it of a phase common in ancient religions. The
very phrase 7Xa)<7ffcus XaXelv, " to speak with tongues," was
not invented by the New Testament writers, but borrowed from
ordinary speech.
Virgil (Aen. vi. 46, 98) draws a life-like picture of the ancient
prophetess " speaking with tongues." He depicts her quick
changes of colour, her dishevelled hair, her panting breast, her
apparent increase of stature as the god draws nigh and fills her
with his divine afflatus. Then her voice loses its mortal's ring:
" nee mortale sonans." The same morbid and abnormal trance
utterances recur in Christian revivals in every age, e.g. among
the mendicant friars of the 13th century, among the Jansenists,
the early Quakers, the converts of Wesley and Whitefield, the
persecuted protestants of the Cevennes, the Irvingites.
Oracular possession of the kind above described is also common
among savages and people of lower culture; and Dr Tylor, in
his Primitive Culture, ii. 14, gives examples of ecstatic utterance
interpreted by the sane. Thus in the Sandwich Islands the
god Oro gave his oracles through a priest who " ceased to act
or speak as a voluntary agent, but with his limbs convulsed,
his features distorted and terrific, his eyes wild and strained,
he would roll on the ground foaming at the mouth, and reveal
the will of the god in shrill cries and sounds violent and indis-
tinct, which the attending priests duly interpreted to the
people."
See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen
des Geistes und der Geister (Freiburg, 1899) ; Shaftesbury's Letter on
Enthusiasm; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Irving, vol. ii. (F. C. C.)
TONK, a native state of India, in the P.ajputana agency. It
consists of six isolated tracts, some of which are under the Central
India agency. Total area, 2553 sq. m.; total population (1901),
273,201; estimated revenue £77,000. No tribute is payable.
The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan
descent. The founder of the family was Amir Khan, the noto-
rious Pindari leader at the beginning of the 19th century, who
received the present territory on submitting to the British in
1817. The nawab Mahommed Ibrahim Ali Khan, G.C.I. E.,
succeeded in 1867, and was one of the few chiefs who attended
both Lord Lytton's Durbar in 1877 and the Delhi Durbar of 1903
as rulers of their states. The late minister, Sir Sahibzada
Obeidullah Khan, was deputed on political duty to Peshawar
during the Tirah campaign of 1897. Grain, cotton, opium and
hides are the chief exports. Two of the outlying tracts of the
state are served by two railways. Distress was caused by
drought in 1899-1900. The town of Tonk is situated 1462 ft.
above sea-level, 60 m. by road south from Jaipur, near the right
bank of the river Banas. Pop. (1901), 38,759. It is surrounded
by a wall, with a mud fort. It has a high school, the Walter
female hospital under a lady superintendent, and a hospital for
males.
There is another town in India called Tonk, or Tank, in Dera
Ismail Khan district, North-West Frontier Province; pop. (1901),
4402. It is the residence of a nawab, who formerly exercised
semi-independent powers. Here Sir Henry Durand, lieutenant-
governor of the Punjab, was killed in 1870 when passing on an
elephant under a gateway.
TONNAGE. The mode of ascertaining the tonnage of mer-
chant ships is settled by the Merchant Shipping Acts. But
before explaining the method by which this is computed, it is
well to remark that there are several tonnages employed in
different connexions. Displacement tonnage is that which is
invariably used in respect of warships, and is the actual weight
of water displaced by the vessel whose tonnage is being dealt
1 Jowett's translation.
with. Men-of-War are designed to carry all their weights,
including coal, guns, ammunition, stores and water in tanks and
in boilers, at a certain draught, and the tonnage attributed to
them is the weight of water which at that designed draught
they actually displace. This displacement tonnage is therefore
a total made up of the actual weight of the ship's fabric and
that of everything that is on board of her. It can be found by
ascertaining the exact cubic space occupied by the part of her
body which is immersed (including her rudder, propellers and
external shafting) at the draught under consideration in cubic
feet, and dividing this by 35, since 35 cubic feet of sea-water
weigh one ton. Of course there is nothing to prevent displace-
ment tonnage from being used in describing the size of merchant
ships, and indeed in regard to the performances of fast steam-
ships on trial it is usual to give their draught on the occasion
when they are tested, and to state what was their actual displace-
ment under these trial conditions. But it is obvious, from what
has been said as to the components which go to make up the
displacement at load draught, that this tonnage must, in respect
of any individual ship, be the greatest figure which can be quoted
in regard to her size. It is usual for dues to be assessed against
merchant vessels in respect of their registered tonnage. This must
therefore be fixed by authority, and at present vessels are
measured by the officer of customs according to the rules laid
down in the second schedule to the Merchant Shipping Act
1894. As will be seen from the explanation of the method
adopted, this is a somewhat arbitrary process, and even the
gross registered tonnage affords little indication of the actual
size of the ship, whilst the under-deck and net tonnages are
still less in accord with the extreme dimensions.
As to length for tonnage, the measurements start with the
tonnage deck, which in vessels with less than three decks is the
upper, and in vessels of three or more 1 decks is the second from
below. The length for tonnage is measured in a straight line
along this deck from the inside of the inner plank at the bow
to the inside of the inner plank at the stern, making allowance
for the rake, if any, which the midship bow and stern timbers
may have in the actual deck. When this is measured it is
apparent into which of five classes the ship's tonnage-length
places her. If she be under 50 ft. in length she falls into the
first class, while if she be over 225 ft. in length she falls into the
fifth class, the remaining three classes being intermediate to
these. Vessels of the first class are measured as in four equal
sections, and vessels of the larger class as in twelve equal sections,
according to their length. Then at each of the points of division
so marked off transverse areas are taken. This is done by
measuring the depth in feet from a point at a distance of one-
third of the round of the beam below the tonnage deck to the
upper side of the floor timbers. Where the vessel has a ceiling
and no water-ballast tanks at the point of measurement, 25 in.
is allowed for ceiling. But where there are such tanks the
measurement is taken from the top of the tank and no allowance
is made for ceiling, whether there in fact be any or not. If .the
midship depth so found exceeds 16 ft., each depth is divided into
six equal parts, and the horizontal breadths are measured at
each point of division and also at the upper and lower points of
the depth, extending each measurement to the average thickness
of that part of the ceiling which is between the points of measure-
ment. They are then numbered from above, and the second,
fourth and sixth multiplied by four, whilst the third and fifth
are multiplied by two. The products are then added together.
To the sum are added the first and the seventh breadths. This
total having been multiplied by one-third the common interval
between the breadths, the resultant is the transverse area. The
transverse areas so obtained at each point of the vessel's length
are numbered from the bow aft. Omitting the first and last, the
second and every even area so obtained are multiplied by four,
whilst the third and every odd area are multiplied by two.
These products are added together, as are also those of the first
and last areas if they yield anything, and the figure thus reached
is multiplied by one-third of the common interval between the
I areas. This product is reckoned as the cubical capacity of the
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE— TONSILLITIS
ii
ship in feet. When divided by ioo the result is the registered
under-deck tonnage of the ship — subject to the additions and
deductions ordered by the act. Directions of a kind similar
to those already set out are given whereby the tonnage in the
space enclosed between the tonnage and upper decks may be
ascertained, and also for the measuring of any break, poop or
other permanent closed-in space on the upper deck available
for stores, and the sum of the capacity of these must be added
to the under-deck tonnage to arrive at the gross registered tonnage.
But an express proviso is enacted that no addition shall be made
in respect of any building erected for the shelter of deck pas-
sengers and approved by the board of trade. In the process of
arriving at the net tonnage the main deduction allowed from the
gross tonnage is that of machinery space in steamships. The
method of measurement here is similar to that by which the
under-deck tonnage is reached. Where the engines and boilers
are fitted in separate compartments, each compartment is
measured separately, as is the screw shaft tunnel in the case
of steamships propelled by screws. The tonnage of these spaces
is reckoned, not from the tonnage deck, but from the crown of
the space; whilst, if it has previously been reckoned in the gross
tonnage, there may be an allowance for the space above the
crown, if enclosed for the machinery or for the admission of
light and air. Allowances are only made in respect of any
machinery space if it be devoted solely to machinery or to
light and air. It must not be used for cargo purposes or
for cabins. Further, by the act itself in the case of paddle
steamships, where the machinery space is above 20% and
under 30% of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned
as 37% of such gross tonnage; whilst similarly, in the case of
screw steamships, where such machinery space is over 13 %
and under 20% of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned
as 32%. Further deductions are also made in respect of space
used solely for the accommodation of the master and the crew,
and for the chart-room and signal-room, as well as for the wheel-
house and chain cable locker and for the donkey-engine and
boiler, if connected with the main pumps of the ship, and in
sailing vessels for the sail locker. The space in the double
bottom and in the water-ballast tanks, if these be not available
for the carriage of fuel stores or cargo, is also deducted if it has
been reckoned in the gross tonnage in the first instance.
From the rules above laid down it follows that it is possible
for vessels, if built with a full midship section, to have a gross
registered tonnage considerably below what the actual cubical
capacity of the ship would give, whilst in the case of steam
tugs of high power it is not unprecedented, owing to the large
allowances for machinery and crew spaces, for a vessel to
have a registered net tonnage of nil.
Suez Canal dues being charged on what is practically the
registered tonnage (though all deductions permitted by the
British board of trade are not accepted), it is usual, at all events
in the British navy, for warships to be measured for what would
be their registered tonnage if they were merchant ships, so that
in case they may wish to pass through the canal a scale of
payment may be easily reached. But such tonnage is never
spoken of in considering their size relative to other vessels.
Two other tonnages are also made use of in connexion with
merchant ships, especially when specifications for vessels are
being made. The first of these is measurement capacity. This
is found by measuring out the true cubic capacity of the holds,
whereby it is found what amount of light measurement goods
can be carried. The second is deadweight capacity. This is
generally given as excluding what is carried in the coal bunkers,
and it is therefore the amount of deadweight which can be carried
in the holds at load draught when the vessel is fully charged
with coals and stores. (B. W. G.)
TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, in England, customs duties
anciently imposed upon exports and imports, the former being a
duty upon all wines imported in addition to prisage and butlerage,
the latter a duty imposed ad valorem at the rate of twelve-
pence in the pound on all merchandise imported or exported.
The duties were levied at first by agreement with merchants
(poundage in 1302, tonnage in 1347), then granted by parliament
in 1373, at first for a limited period only. They were considered
to be imposed for the defence of the realm. From the reign
of Henry VI. until that of James I. they were usually granted
for life. They were not granted to Charles I., and in 1628 that
king took the unconstitutional course of levying them on his
own authority, a course denounced a few years later by
16 Car. I. c. 18 (1640), when the Long Parliament granted them
for two months. After the Restoration they were granted to
Charles II. and his two successors for life. By acts of Anne and
George I. the duties were made perpetual, and mortgaged for the
public debt. In 1787 they were finally abolished, and other modes
of obtaining revenue substituted, by 27 Geo. III. c. 13 (1787).
Poundage also signifies a fee paid to an officer of a court for his
services, e.g. to a sheriff's officer, who is entitled by 29 Eliz. c. 4
(1586-1587) to a poundage of a shilling in the pound on an execution
up to £100, and sixpence in the pound above that sum.
TONNERRE, a town of north-central France, capital of- an
arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 52 m. S.E. of Sens
on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), 3974. It is situated
on a slope of the vineclad hills on the left bank of the Armancon.
At the foot of the hill rises the spring of Fosse-Dionne, enclosed
in a circular basin 49 ft. in diameter. The town has two interest-
ing churches. That of St Pierre, which crowns the hill, possesses
a fine lateral portal of the Renaissance period to which the church,
with the exception of the choir (1351), belongs. The church of
Notre-Dame is mainly Gothic, but the facade is a fine specimen
of Renaissance architecture. The Salle des Malades, a large
timber-roofed apartment in the hospital, dates from the end of
the 13th century and is used as a chapel. It is 330 ft. long and
contains the tombs of Margaret of Burgundy, wife of Charles
of Anjou, king of Sicily, and foundress of the hospital, and of
Francois-Michel Le Tellier, marquis of Louvois, war minister
of Louis XIV. The hospital itself was rebuilt in the 19th
century. The Renaissance Hdtel d'Uzes was built in the 16th
century. Tonnerre is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal
of first instance. The vineyards of the vicinity produce well-
known wines. The trade of the town is chiefly in wine, in
the good building-stone found in the neighbourhood and in
Portland cement. Cooperage is carried on.
Its ancient name of Tornodorum points to a Gallic or Gallo-
Roman origin for Tonnerre. In the 6th century it became the
capital of the region of Tonnerrois and in the 10th century of a
countship. After passing into the possession of several noble
families, it was bought from a count of Clermont-Tonnerre by
Louvois, by whose descendants it was held up to the time of
the Revolution.
TONQUA BEAN. The Tonqua, Tonka or Tonquin bean,
also called the coumara nut, is the seed of Dipterix odorala, a
leguminous tree growing to a height of 80 ft., native of tropical
South America. The drupe-like pod contains a single seed
possessed of a fine sweet " new-mown hay " odour, due to the
presence of coumarin (?.».). Tonqua beans are used principally
for scenting snuff and as an ingredient in perfume sachets and
in perfumers' " bouquets."
TONSBERG, a fortified seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg-
Laurvik amt (county), situated on a bay on the south coast,
near the entrance to Christiania Fjord, 72 m. S. by W. of Christi-
ania on the Skien railway. Pop. (1900), 8620. It is one of
the most ancient towns in Norway. It is the headquarters of a
sealing and whaling fleet. The principal industries are refineries
for preparing whale and seal oil and saw-mills. An interesting
collection of antiquities and whaling implements is preserved in
the Slotstaarn on Castle Hill.
TONSILLITIS, acute inflammation of the tonsils, or quinsy,
due to the invasion of the tonsil, or tonsils, by septic micro-
organisms which may have gained access through the mouth or
by the blood-stream. Sometimes the attack comes on as the
result of direct exposure to sewer gas, and it is not at all an
uncommon affection of house surgeons, nurses and others
who have to spend most of their time in a hospital. The
association of quinsy with rheumatism may be the result of the
12
TONSON— TONTINE
infection of the tonsils by the micro-organisms or the toxins
of that disease. Acute tonsillitis is very apt to run on to the
formation of abscess. Quinsy may begin with a feeling of
chilliness or with an attack of shivering. Then comes on a
swelling in the throat with pain, tenderness and difficulty in
swallowing. Indeed, if both tonsils are acutely inflamed it
may be impossible to swallow even fluid and the breathing
may be seriously embarrassed. The temperature may be raised
several degrees. There is pain about the ear and about the
jaw, and there is a swelling of the glands in the neck. The
breath is offensive and the tongue is thickly coated. There
may be some yellowish markings on the surface of the tonsil,
but these differ from the patches of " false membrane " of
diphtheria in that they can be easily brushed off by a swab, but
often a true diagnosis can only be made by bacteriological
examination. The treatment consists in giving a purgative,
and in encouraging the patient to use an inhaler containing hot
carbolized water. Hot compresses also may be applied to the
neck. As regards medicines, the most trustworthy are salicylic
acid, iron and quinine. As soon as abscess threatens, a
slender-bladed knife should be thrust ' from before backward
deeply into the swollen mass. And if, as most likely happens,
matter then escapes, the patient's distress speedily ends. Con-
valescence having set in, a change of air and course of tonic
treatment will be advisable.
Chronic tonsillitis is often associated with adenoid vegetations
at the back of the throat of tuberculous or delicate children, such
children being spoken of as being " liable to sore throat." Chronic
enlargement of the tonsils may seriously interfere with a child's
general health and vigour and, should the condition not subside
under general measures such as a stay at a bracing seaside place
and the taking of cod-liver oil and iron, it will be well to treat the
tonsils by operation. (E. O.*)
TONSON, the name of a family of London booksellers and
publishers. Richard and Jacob Tonson (c. 1656-1736), sons
of a London barber-surgeon, started in 1676 and 1677 indepen-
dently as booksellers and publishers in London. In 1679 Jacob,
the better known of the two, bought and published Dryden's
Troilus and Cressida, and from that time was closely associated
with Dryden, and published most of his works. He published
the Miscellany Poems (1684-1708) under Dryden's editorship,
the collection being known indifferently as Dryden's or Tonson' s
Miscellany, and also Dryden's translation of Virgil (1697).
Serious disagreements over the price paid, however, arose
between poet and publisher, and in his Faction Displayed
(1705) Dryden described Tonson as having " two left legs, and
Judas-coloured hair." Subsequently the relations between the
two men injproved. The brothers jointly published Dryden's
Spanish Friar (1683). Jacob Tonson also published Congreve's
Double Dealer, Sir John Vanbrugh's The Faithful Friend and
The Confederacy, and the pastorals of Pope, thus justifying
Wycherly's description of him as "gentleman usher to the
Muses." He bought also the valuable rights of Paradise Lost,
half in 1683 and half in 1600. This was his first profitable
venture in poetry. In 171 2 he became joint publisher with
Samuel Buckley of the Spectator, and in the following year
published Addison's Cato. He was the original secretary and
a prominent member of the Kit-Cat Club. About 1720 he gave
up business and retired to Herefordshire, where he died on the
2nd of April 1736. His business was carried on by his
nephew, Jacob Tonson, jun. (d. 1735), and subsequently by
his grand-nephew, also Jacob (d. 1767).
TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave), a religious
observance in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern
Churches, consisting of the shaving or cutting part of the hair
of the head as a sign of dedication to special service. The
reception of the tonsure in these churches is the initial ceremony
which marks admission to orders and to the rights and privileges
of clerical standing. It is administered by the bishop with an
appropriate ritual. Candidates for the rite must have been
confirmed, be adequately instructed in the elements of the
Christian faith, and be able to read and write. Those who have
received it are bound (unless in exceDtional circumstances)
to renew the mark, consisting of a bare circle on the crown of
the head, at least once a month, otherwise they forfeit the
privileges it carries. The practice is not a primitive one; Ter-
tullian simply advises Christians to avoid vanity in dressing
their hair, and Jerome deprecates both long and closely cropped
hair. According to Prudentius (Hepio: xiii. 30) it was customary
for the hair to be cut short at ordination. Paulinus of Nola
(c. 490) alludes to the tonsure as in use among the (Western)
monks; from them the practice quickly spread to the clergy.
For Gaul about the year 500 we have the testimony of Sidonius
Apollinaris (iv. 13), who says that Germanicus the bishop had
his hair cut " in rotae speciem."
The earliest instance of an ecclesiastical precept on the subject
occurs in can. 41 of the Council of Toledo (a.d. 633) : " omnes clerici,
detonso superius capite toto, inferius solam circuli coronam relin-
quant." Can. 33 of the Quinisext council (692) requires even singers
and readers to be tonsured. Since the 8th century three tonsures
have been more or less in use, known respectively as the Roman,
the Greek and the Celtic. The first two are sometimes distinguished
as the tonsure of Peter and the tonsure of Paul. The Roman or
St Peter's tonsure prevailed in France, Spain and Italy. It consisted
in shaving the whole head, leaving only a fringe of hair supposed to
symbolize the crown of thorns. Late in the middle ages this
tonsure was lessened for the clergy, but retained for monks and
friars. In the Eastern or St Paul's tonsure the whole head was
shaven, but when now practised in the Eastern Church this tonsure
is held to be adequately shown when the hair is shorn close. In
the Celtic tonsure (tonsure of St John, or, in contempt, tonsure of
Simon Magus) all the hair in front of a line drawn over the top of
the head from ear to ear was shaven (a fashion common among the
Hindus). The question of the Roman or Celtic tonsure was one of
the points in dispute in the early British Church, settled in favour
of the Roman fashion at the Council of Whitby (664). The tonsure
at first was never given separately, and even children when so
dedicated were appointed readers, as no one could belong to the
clerical state without at least a minor order. From the 7th century,
however, children were tonsured without ordination, and later on
adults anxious to escape secular jurisdiction were often tonsured
without ordination. Till the 10th century the tonsure could be
given by priests or even by laymen, but its bestowal was gradually
restricted to bishops and abbots.
TONTINE, a system of life insurance owing its name to
Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian banker, born at Naples early in the 17th
century, who settled in France about 1650. In 1653 he proposed
to Cardinal Mazarin a new scheme for promoting a public loan.
A total of 1,025,000 livres was to be subscribed in ten portions
of 102,500 livres each by ten classes of subscribers, the first class
consisting of persons under 7, the second of persons above 7 and
under 14, and so on to the tenth, which consisted of persons
between 63 and 70. The annual fund of each class was to be
divided among the survivors of that class, and on the death of the
last individual the capital was to fall to the state. This plan of
operations was authorized under the name of "tontine royale"
by a royal edict, but this the parlement refused to register, and the
idea remained in abeyance till 1689, when it was revived by
Louis XIV., who established a tontine of 1,400,000 livres divided
into fourteen classes of 100,000 each, the subscription being 300
livres. This tontine was carried on till 1726, when the last bene-
ficiary died — a widow who at the time of her decease was drawing
an annual income of 73,500 livres. Several other government
tontines were afterwards set on foot; but in 1763 restrictions
were introduced, and in 1770 all tontines at the time in existence
were wound up. Private tontines continued to flourish in
France for some years, the " tontine Lefarge," the most cele-
brated of the kind, being opened in 1791 and closed in 1889.
The tontine principle has often been applied in Great Britain,
at one time in connexion with government life annuities. Many
such tontines were set on foot between the years 1773 and 1789,
those of 1773, 1775 and 1777 being commonly called the Irish
tontines, as the money was borrowed under acts of the Irish parlia-
ment. The most important English tontine was that of 1789, which
was created by 29 Geo. III. c. 41. Under this act over a million was
raised in 10,000 shares of £100, 5s. It was also often applied to the
purchase of estates or the erection of buildings. The investor
staked his money on the chance of his own life or the life of his
nominee enduring for a longer period than the other lives involved
in the speculation, in which case he expected to win a large prize. It
was occasionally introduced into life assurance, more particularly
by American life offices, but newer and more ingenious forms of
contract nave now made the tontine principle practically a thing
of the past. (See National Debt ; Insurai*ce.)
TOOKE, J. H.
13
TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812), English politician and
philologist, third son of John Home, a poulterer in Newport
Market, whose business the boy when at Eton happily veiled
under the title of a " Turkey merchant," was born in Newport
Street, Long Acre, Westminster, on the 25th of June 1736.
After passing some time at school in Soho Square, and at a
Kentish village, he went from 1744 to 1746 to Westminster
School and for the next five or six years was at Eton. On the
1 2th of January 1754 he was admitted as sizar at St John's
College, Cambridge, and took his degree of B.A. in 1758, as last
but one of the senior optimes, Richard Beadon, his lifelong friend,
afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, being a wrangler in the
same year. Home had been admitted on the 9th of November
1756, as student at the Inner Temple, making the friendship of
John Dunning and Lloyd Kenyon, but his father wished him to
take orders in the English Church, and he was ordained deacon
on the 23rd of September 1759 and priest on the 23rd of
November 1760. For a few months he was usher at a boarding
school at Blackheath, but on the 26th of September 1760 he
became perpetual curate of New Brentford, the incumbency of
which his father had purchased for him, and he retained its
scanty profits until 1773. During a part of this time (1763-1764)
he was absent on a tour in France, acting as the bear-leader of a
son of the miser Elwes. Under the excitement created by the
actions of Wilkes, Home plunged into politics, and in 1765
brought out a scathing pamphlet on Lords Bute and Mansfield,
entitled " The Petition of an Englishman." In the autumn of
1765 he escorted to Italy the son of a Mr Taylor. In Paris he
made the acquaintance of Wilkes, and from Montpellier, in
January 1766, addressed a letter to him which sowed the seeds
of their personal antipathy. In the summer of 1767 Home
landed again on English soil, and in 1768 secured the return of
Wilkes to parliament for Middlesex. With inexhaustible energy
he promoted the legal proceedings over the riot in St George's
Fields, when a youth named Allen was killed, and exposed the
irregularity in the judge's order for the execution of two Spital-
fields weavers. His dispute with George Onslow, member for
Surrey, who at first supported and then threw over Wilkes for
place, culminated in a civil action, ultimately decided, after the
reversal of a verdict which had been obtained through the charge
of Lord Mansfield, in Home's favour, and in the loss by his
opponent of his seat in parliament. An influential association,
called " The Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights," was
founded, mainly through the exertions of Home, in 1769, but
the members were soon divided into two opposite camps, and
in 1 77 1 Home and Wilkes, their respective leaders, broke out
into open warfare, to the damage of their cause. On the 1st
of July 1 77 1 Home obtained at Cambridge, though not without
some opposition from members of both the political parties, his
degree of M.A. Earlier in that year he claimed for the public the
right of printing an account of the debates in parliament, and
after a protracted struggle between the ministerial majority and
the civic authorities, the right was definitely established. The
energies of the indefatigable parson knew no bounds. In the
same year (1771) he crossed swords with Junius, and ended in
disarming his masked antagonist. Up to this time Home's fixed
income consisted of those scanty emoluments attached to a
position which galled him daily. He resigned his benefice in
1773 .and betook himself to the study of the law and philology.
An accidental circumstance, however, occurred at this moment
which largely affected his future. His friend Mr William Tooke
had purchased a considerable estate, including Purley Lodge,
south of the town of Croydon in Surrey. The possession of
this property brought about frequent disputes with an ad-
joining landowner, Thomas de Grey, and, after many actions
in the courts, his friends endeavoured to obtain, by a bill
forced through the houses of parliament, the privileges which
the law had not assigned to him (February 1774). Home,
thereupon, by a bold libel on the Speaker, drew public atten-
tion to the case, and though he himself was placed for a
time in the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, the clauses which
were injurious to the interest of Mr Tooke were eliminated from
the bill. Mr Tooke declared his intention of making Home
the heir of his fortune, and, if the design was never carried
into effect, during his lifetime he bestowed upon him large
gifts of money. No sooner had this matter been happily
settled than Home found himself involved in serious
trouble. For his conduct in signing the advertisement soliciting
subscriptions for the relief of the relatives of the Americans
" murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and Concord,"
he was tried at the Guildhall on the 4th of July 1777, before
Lord Mansfield, found guilty, and committed to the King's Bench
prison in St George's Fields, from which he only emerged after
a year's durance, and after a loss in fines and costs amounting to
£1200. Soon after his deliverance he applied to be called to the
bar, but his application was negatived on the ground that his
orders in the Church were indelible. Home thereupon tried his
fortune, but without success, on farming some land in Hunting-
donshire. Two tracts about this time exercised great influence
in the country. One of them, Fads Addressed to Landholders,
&c. (1780), written by Home in conjunction with others,
criticizing the measures of Lord North's ministry, passed through
numerous editions; the other, A Letter on Parliamentary Reform
(1782), addressed by him to Dunning, set out a scheme
of reform, which he afterwards withdrew in favour of that
advocated by Pitt. On his return from Huntingdonshire he
became once more a frequent guest at Mr Tooke's house at
Purley, and in 1782 assumed the name of Home Tooke. In
1786 Home Tooke conferred perpetual fame upon his bene-
factor's country house by adopting, as a second title of his
elaborate philological treatise of "E7rca irrtpbevra, the more
popular though misleading title of The Diversions of Purley.
The treatise at once attracted attention in England and the
Continent. The first part was published in 1786, the second
in 1805. The best edition is that which was published in 1829,
under the editorship of Richard Taylor, with the additions
written in the author's interleaved copy.
Between 1782 and 1790 Tooke gave his support to Pitt, and
in the election for Westminster, in 1784, threw all his energies
into opposition to Fox. With Fox he was never on terms of
friendship, and Samuel Rogers, in his Table Talk, asserts that
their antipathy was so pronounced that at a dinner party given
by a prominent Whig not the slightest notice was taken by Fox
of the. presence of Home Tooke. It was after the election of
Westminster in 1788 that Tooke depicted the rival statesmen
(Lord Chatham and Lord Holland, William Pitt and C. J. Fox)
in his celebrated pamphlet of Two Pair of Portraits. At the
general election of 1790 he came forward as a candidate for that
distinguished constituency, in opposition to Fox and Lord Hood,
but was defeated; and, at a second trial in 1796, he was again
at the bottom of the poll. Meantime the excesses of the French
republicans had provoked reaction in England, and the Tory
ministry adopted a policy of repression. Home Tooke was
arrested early on the morning of the 16th of May 1794, and
conveyed to the Tower. His trial for high treason lasted for six
days (17 th to 22nd of November) and ended in his acquittal,
the jury only taking eight minutes to settle their verdict. His
public life after this event was only distinguished by one act of
importance. Through the influence of the second Lord Camel-
ford, the fighting peer, he was returned to parliament in 1801
for the pocket borough of Old Sarum. Lord Temple endeavoured
to secure his exclusion on the ground that he had taken orders
in the Church, and one of Gilray's caricatures delineates the two
politicians, Temple and Camelford, playing at battledore and
shuttlecock, with Home Tooke as the shuttlecock. The ministry
of Addington would not support this suggestion, but a bill
was at once introduced by them and carried into law, which
rendered all persons in holy orders ineligible to sit in the House
of Commons, and Home Tooke sat for that parliament only.
The last years of Tooke's life were spent in retirement in a
house on the west side of Wimbledon Common. The traditions
of his Sunday parties have lasted unimpaired to this day,
and the most pleasant pages penned by his biographer describe
the politicians and the men of letters who gathered round his
H
TOOKE, T.— TOOL
hospitable board. His conversational powers rivalled those of
Dr Johnson; and, if more of his sayings have not been chronicled
for the benefit of posterity, the defect is due to the absence of a
Boswell. Through the liberality of his friends, his last days
were freed from the pressure of poverty, and he was enabled
to place his illegitimate son in a position which soon brought
him wealth, and to leave a competency to his two illegitimate
daughters. Illness seized him early in 1810, and for the next
two years his sufferings were acute. He died in his house at
Wimbledon on the 1 8th" of March 181 2, and his body was buried
with that of his mother at Ealing, the tomb which he had
prepared in the garden attached to his house at Wimbledon
being found unsuitable for the interment. An altar-tomb still
stands to his memory in Ealing churchyard. A catalogue of
his library was printed in 1813.
The Life of Home Tooke, by Alexander Stephens, is written in an
unattractive style and was the work of an admirer only admitted
to his acquaintance at the close of his days. The notice in the
Quarterly Review, June 1812, of W. Hamilton Reid's compilation,
is by J. W. Ward, Lord Dudley. The main facts of his life are set
out by Mr J. E. Thorold Rogers, in his Historical Gleanings, 2nd
series. Many of Home Tooke's wittiest sayings are preserved in the
Table Talk of Samuel Rogers and S. T. Coleridge. (W. P. C.)
TOOKE, THOMAS (1774-1858), English economist, was born
at St Petersburg on the 29th of February 1774. Entering a
large Russian house in London at an early age, he acquired
sound practical experience of commercial matters and became
a recognized authority on finance and banking. He was one of
the earliest advocates of free trade and drew up the Merchants'
Petition presented to the House of Commons by Alexander
Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton. He gave evidence before
several parliamentary committees, notably the committee of
1 82 1, on foreign trade, and those of 1832, 1840 and 1848 on the
Bank Acts. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in
1821. He died in London on the 26th of February 1858.
Tooke was the author of Thoughts and Details on the High and Low
Prices of the last Thirty Years (1823), Considerations on the State of
the Currency (1826), in both of which he showed his hostility to the
policy afterwards carried out in the Bank Act of 1844, but he is
best known for his History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation
during the Years 1703-1856 (6 vols., 1838-1857). In the first four
volumes he treats (a) of the prices of corn, and the circumstances
affecting prices; (6) the prices of produce other than corn; and (c)
the state of the circulation. The two final volumes, written in
conjunction with W. Newmarch (q.v.), deal with railways, free, trade,
banking in Europe and the effects of new discoveries of gold.'
TOOL (0. Eng. tdl, generally referred to a root seen in the
Goth, taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or
dress leather), an implement or appliance used by a worker
in the treatment of the substances used in his handicraft,
whether in the preliminary operations of setting out and
measuring the materials, in reducing his work to the required
form by cutting or otherwise, in gauging it and testing its
accuracy, or in duly securing it while thus being treated.
For the tools of prehistoric man see such articles as Archaeology ;
Flint Implements; and Egypt, § Art and Archaeology.
In beginning a survey of tools it is necessary to draw the
distinction between hand and machine tools. The former class
includes any tool which is held and operated by the unaided
hands, as a chisel, plane or saw. Attach one of these to some
piece of operating mechanism, and it, with the environment of
which it is the central essential object, becomes a machine tool.
A very simple example is the common power-driven hack saw
for metal, or the small high-speed drill, or the wood-boring auger
held in a frame and turned by a winch handle and bevel-gears.
The difference between these and a big frame-saw cutting down a
dozen boards simultaneously, or the immense machine boring the
cylinders of an ocean liner, or the great gun lathe, or the hydraulic
press, is so vast that the relationship is hardly apparent. Often
the tool itself is absolutely dwarfed by the machine, of which
nevertheless it is the central object and around which the machine
is designed and built. A milling machine weighing several tons
will often be seen rotating a tool of but two or three dozen
pounds' weight. Yet the machine is fitted with elaborate slides
and self-acting movements, and provision for taking up wear,
and is worth some hundreds of pounds sterling, while the tool
may not be worth two pounds. Such apparent anomalies are
in constant evidence. We propose, therefore, first to take a
survey of the principles that underlie the forms of tools, and
then pursue the subject of their embodiment in machine tools.
Hand Tools
The most casual observation reveals the fact that tools admit
of certain broad classifications. It is apparent that by far the
larger number owe their value to their capacity for cutting or
removing portions of material by an incisive or wedge-like
action, leaving a smooth surface behind. An analysis of the
essential methods of operation gives a broad grouping as
follows : —
I. The chisel group . . Typified by the chisel of the woodworker.
II. The shearing group . ,, ,, scissors.
\\\' J he scra P ers • • • „ ,, cabinet-maker's scrape.
IV. The percussive and ) , , , ,
detrusive group . ) " " hammer and the punch.
V. The moulding group . „ ,, trowel.
The first three are generally all regarded as cutting tools,
notwithstanding that those in II. and III. do not operate as
wedges, and therefore are not true chisels. But many occupy
a border-line where the results obtained are practically those
due to cutting, as in some of the shears, saws, milling cutters,
files and grinding wheels, where, if the action is not directly
wedge-like, it is certainly, more or less incisive in character.
Cutting Tools. — The cutting edge of a tool is the practical outcome
of several conditions. Keenness of edge, equivalent to a small
degree of angle between the tool faces, would appear at first sight
to be the prime element in cutting, as indeed it is in the case of a
razor, or in that of a chisel for soft wood. But that is not the prime
condition in a tool for cutting iron or steel. Strength is of far
greater importance, and to it some keenness of edge must be sacri-
ficed. All cutting tools are wedges; but a razor or a chisel edge,
included between angles of 15 or 20 , would be turned over at once
if presented to iron or steel, for which angles of from 6o° to 75 are
required. Further, much greater rigidity in the latter, to resist
spring and fracture, is necessary than in the former, because the
resistance to cutting is much greater. A workman can operate a
turning tool by hand, even on heavy pieces of metal-work. Formerly
all turning, no matter how large, was done by hand-operated tools,
and after great muscular exertion a few pounds of metal might be
removed in an hour. But coerce a similarly formed tool in a rigid
guide or rest, and drive it by the power of ten or twenty men, and
it becomes possible to remove say a hundredweight of chips in an
hour. Or, increase the size of the tool and its capacity for endurance,
and drive by the power of 40 or 60 horses, and half a ton of chips
may be removed in an hour.
Allmachine tools of which the chisel is the type operate by cutting ;
that is, they act on the same principle and by the same essentia!
method as the knife, razor or chisel, and not by that of the grind-
stone. A single tool, however, may act as a cutting instrument at
one time and as a scrape at another. The butcher's knife will
afford a familiar illustration. It is used as a cutting tool when sever-
ing a steak, but it becomes a scrape when used to clean the block.
The difference is not therefore due to the form of the knife, but to the
method of its application, a distinction which holds good in reference
to the tools used by engineers. There is a very old hand tool once
much used in the engineer's turnery, termed a " graver." This was
employed for cutting and for scraping indiscriminately, simply by
varying the angle of its presentation. At that time the question
of the best cutting angles was seldom raised or discussed, because
the manipulative instinct of the turner settled it as the work pro-
ceeded, and as the material operated on varied in texture and degree
of hardness. But since the use of the slide rest holding tools rigidly
fixed has become general, the question of the most suitable tool
formation has been the subject of much experiment and discussion.
The almost unconscious experimenting which goes on every day
in every workshop in the world proves that there may be a difference
of several degrees of angle in tools doing similar work, without
having any appreciable effect upon results. So long as certain
broad principles and reasonable limits are observed, that is sufficient
for practical purposes.
Clearly, in order that a tool shall cut, it must possess an incisive
form. In fig. 1, A might be thrust over the surface of the plate of
metal, but no cutting action could take place. It would simply
grind and polish the surface. If it were formed like B, the grinding
action would give place to scraping, by which some material would
be removed. Many tools are formed thus, but there is still no
incisive or knife-like action, and the tool is simply a scrape and not
a cutting tool. But C is a cutting tool, possessing penetrative
capacity. If now B were tilted backwards as at D, it would at
HAND TOOLS]
TOOL
is
once become a cutting tool. But its bevelled face would rub and
grind on the surface of the work, producing friction and heat, and
interfering with the penetrative action of the cutting edge. On
the other hand, if C were tilted forwards as at E its action would
approximate to that of a scrape for the time being. But the high
angle of the hinder bevelled face would not afford adequate support
to the cutting edge, and the latter would therefore become worn
off almost instantly, precisely as that of a razor or wood-working
chisel would crumble away if operated on hard metal. It is obvious
would
Fig,
burnish
Tool which
only.
Scrape.
Cutting tool,
and E, Scraping and cutting
tools improperly presented.
G, H, Presentations of tools
for planing, turning and
boring respectively.
K, L, Approximate angles of
tools; a, clearance angle, or
bottom rake ; b, front or top
rake; c, tool angle.
therefore that the correct form for a cutting tool must depend upon
a due balance being maintained between the angle of the front
and of the bottom faces — " front " or " top rake," and "bottom
rake " or " clearance " — considered in regard to their method of
presentation to the work. Since, too, all tools used in machines are
held rigidly in one position, differing in this respect from hand-
operated tools, it follows that a constant angle should be given to
instruments which are used for operating on a given kind of metal
or alloy. It does not matter whether a tool is driven in a lathe,
or a planing machine, or a sharper or a slotter; whether it is cutting
on external or internal surfaces, it is always maintained in a direction
perpendicularly to the point of application as in fig. I, F, G, H,
planing, turning and boring respectively. It is consistent with
reason and with fact that the softer and more fibrous the metal,
the keener must be the formation of the tool, and that, conversely,
the harder and more crystalline the metal the more obtuse must be
the cutting angles, as in the extremes of the razor and the tools
for cutting iron and steel already instanced. The three figures
J, K, L show tools suitably formed for wrought iron and mild steel,
for cast iron and cast steel, and for brass respectively. Cast iron
and cast steel could not be cut properly with the first, nor wrought
iron and fibrous steel with the second, nor either with the third.
The angles given are those which accord best with general practice,
but they are not constant, being varied by conditions, especially
by lubrication and rigidity of fastenings. The profiles of the first
and second tools are given mainly with the view of having material
for grinding away, without the need for frequent reforging. But
there are many tools which are formed quite differently when used
in tool-holders and in turrets, though the same essential principles
of angle are observed.
The angle of clearance, or relief, a, in fig. I, is an important detail
of a cutting tool. It is of greater importance than an exact angle
of top rake. But, given some sufficient angle of clearance, its
exact amount is not of much moment. Neither need it be uniform
for a given cutting edge. It may vary from say 3° to io c , or even
20 , and under good conditions little or no practical differences will
result. Actually it need never vary much from 5 to 7°. The object
in giving a clearance angle is simply to prevent friction between
the non-cutting face immediately adjacent to the edge and the
surface of the work. The limit to this clearance is that at which
insufficient support is afforded to the cutting edge. These are the
two facts, which if fulfilled permit of a considerable range in clear-
ance angle. The softer the metal being cut the greater can be the
clearance; the harder the material the less clearance is permissible
because the edge requires greater support.
The front, or top rake, b in fig. I, is the angle or slope of the front,
or top face, of the tool ; it is varied mainly according as materials
are crystalline or fibrous. In the turnings and cuttings taken off
the more crystalline metals and alloys, the broken appearance of the
chips is distinguished from the shavings removed from the fibrous
materials. This is a feature which always distinguishes cast iron
and unannealed cast steel from mild steel, high carbon steel from
that low in carbon, and cast iron from wrought iron. It indicates
too that extra work is put on the tool in breaking up the chips,
following immediately on their severance, and when the comminu-
tions are very small they indicate insufficient top rake. This
is a result that turners try to avoid when possible, or at least to
minimize. Now the greater the slope of the top rake the more
easily will the cuttings come away, with the minimum of break in the
crystalline materials and absolutely unbroken over lengths of many-
feet in the fibrous ones. The breaking up, or the continuity
of the cuttings, therefore affords an indication of the suitability of
the amount of top rake to its work. But compromise often has
to be made between the ideal and the actual. The amount of top
rake has to be limited in the harder metals and alloys in otder to
secure a strong tool angle, without which tools would lack the ; endur-
ance required to sustain them through several hours without
regrinding.
The tool angle, c, is the angle included between top and bottom
faces, and its amount, or thickness expressed in degrees, is a measure
of the strength and endurance of any tool. At extremes it varies
from about 15° to 85 °. It is traceable in all kinds of tools, having
very diverse forms. It is difficult to place some groups in the
cutting category; they are on the border-line between cutting and
scraping instruments.
Typical Tools. — A bare enumeration of the diverse forms in which
tools of the chisel type occur is not even possible here. The grouped
illustrations (figs. 2 to 6) show some of the types, but it will be
understood that each is varied in dimensions, angles and outlines
to suit all the varied kinds of metals and alloys and conditions of
operation. For, as every tool has to be gripped in a holder of some
kind, as a slide-rest, tool-box, turret, tool-holder, box, cross-slide,
&c, this often determines the choice of some one form in preference
to another. A broad division is that into roughing and finishing
s\\*
\
c
^M
\
^ ^
Q
E^—
■ H
^
c
i
f ^
M
Fig. 2. — Metal-turning Tools.
A, Shape of tool used for scrap-
ing brass.
B, Straightforward tool for turn-
ing all metals.
C, Right- and left-hand tools for
all metals.
D, A better form of same.
E, Diamond or angular-edge tool
for cutting all metals.
F, Plan of finishing tool.
G, Spring tool for finishing.
H, Side or knife tool.
/, Parting or cutting-off tool.
K, L, Round-nose tools.
M, Radius tool'.
Fig. 3. — Group of Planer Tools.
A, Planer type of tool, cranked
to avoid digging into the
metal.
B, Face view of roughing tool.
C, Face view of finishing tool.
D, Right- and left-hand knife or
side tools.
E, Parting or cutting-off or
grooving tool.
F, V tool for grooves.
G, Right- and left-hand tools for
V-slots.
H, Ditto for T-slots.
J, Radius tool held in holder.
16
TOOL
[HAND TOOLS
tools. Generally though not invariably the edge of the first is
narrow, of the second broad, corresponding with the deep cutting
Had fine traverse of the first and the shallow cutting and broad
£/
a
B
i£r#:i
W
Fig. 4. — Group of Slotter Tools.
A, Common roughing tool. B, Parting-off or grooving tool.
C, Roughing or finishing tool in a holder. D, Double-edged tool
for cutting opposite sides of a slot.
Fig. 5. — Group of Tool-holders.
A, Smith & Coventry swivelling holder. B, Holder for square
steel. C, D, right- and left-hand forms of same. E, Holder for
round steel. F, Holder for narrow parting-off tool.
traverse of the second. The following are some of the principal
forms. The round-nosed roughing tool (fig. 2) B is of straight-
forward type, used for turning,
planing and shaping. As the
correct tool angle can only occur
on the middle plane of the tool, it
is usual to employ cranked tools,
C, D, E, right- and left-handed,
for heavy and moderately heavy
duty, the direction of the crank-
ing corresponding with that in
which the tool is required to
traverse. Tools for boring are
cranked and many for planing
(fig. 3). The slotting tools (fig. 4)
embody the same principle, but
their shanks are in line with
the direction of cutting. Many
roughing and finishing tools are
of knife type II. Finishing tools
have broad edges, F, G, H. They
occur in straightforward and
right- and left-hand types.
These as a rule remove less than
5^ in. in depth, while the rough-
ing tools may cut an inch or
more into the metal. But the
traverse of the first often exceeds
an inch, while in that of the
second \ in. is a very coarse
amount of feed. Spring tools, G,
used less now than formerly, are only of value for imparting a smooth
finish to a surface. They are finishing tools only. Some spring
tools are formed with considerable top rake, but generally they act
by scraping only.
Solid Tools v. Tool-holders. — It will be observed that the fore-
going are solid tools ; that is, the cutting portion is forged from a solid
Fig. 6. — Group of Chisels.
A, Paring chisel.
B, Socket chisel for heavy duty.
C, Common chipping chisel.
D, Narrow cross-cut er cape chisel.
E, Cow-mouth chisel, or gouge.
F, Straight chisel or sett.
G, Hollow chisel or sett.
bar of steel. This is costly when the best tool steel is used, hence
large numbers of tools comprise points only, which are gripped in
permanent holders in which they interchange. Tool steel usually
ranges from about J in. to 4 in. square; most engineers' work is done
with bars of from i in. to lj in. square. It is in the smaller and
medium sizes of tools that holders prove of most value. Solid tools,
varying from 2j in. to 4 in. square, are used for the heaviest cutting
done in the planing machine. Tool-holders are not employed for very
heavy work, because the heat generated would not get away fast
enough from small tool points. There are scores of holders; per-
haps a dozen good approved types are in common use. They are
divisible into three great groups: those in which the top rake of
the tool point is embodied in the holder, and is constant; those in
which the clearance is similarly embodied ; and those in which
neither is provided for, but in which the tool point is ground to any
angle. Charles Babbage designed the first tool-holder, and the
essential type survives in several modern forms. The best-known
holders now are the Tangye, the Smith & Coventry, the Armstrong,
some by Mr C. Taylor, and the Bent. The Smith & Coventry (fig. 5),
used more perhaps than any other single design, includes two forms.
In one E the tool is a bit of round steel set at an angle which gives
front rake, and having the top end ground to an angle of top rake.
In the other A the tool has the section of a truncated wedge, set
for constant top rake, or cutting angle, and having bottom rake
or clearance angle ground. The Smith & Coventry round tool is
not applicable for all classes of work. It will turn plain work, and
plane level faces, but will not turn or plane into corners or angles.
Hence the invention of the tool of V-section, and the swivel tool-
holder. The round tool-holders are made right- and left-handed,
the swivel tool-holder has a universal movement. The amount of
projection of the round tool points is very limited, which impairs
their utility when some overhanging of the tool is necessary. The
V-tools can be slid out in their holders to operate on faces and
edges situated to some considerable distance inwards from the end
of the tool-holder.
Box Tools. — In one feature the box tools of the turret lathes
resemble tool-holders. The small pieces of steel used for tool
points are gripped in the boxes, as in tool-holders, and all the
advantages which are derived from this arrangement of separating
the point from its holder are thus secured (fig. 7). But in all other
...»,
W F
Fig. 7. — Box Tool for Turret Lathe. (Alfred Herbert, Ltd., Coventry.)
A, Cutting tool. B, Screw for adjusting radius of cut. C C,
V-steadies supporting the work in opposition to A. D, Diameter
of work. E, Body of holder. F, Stem which fits in the turret.
respects the two are dissimilar. Two or three tool-holders of different
sizes take all the tool points used in a lathe, but a new box has to
be devised in the case of almost every new job, with the exception
of those the principal formation of which is the turning down of
plain bars. The explanation is that, instead of a single point,
several are commonly carried in a box. As complexity increases
with the number of tools, new designs and dimensions of boxes
become necessary, even though there may be family resemblances
in groups. A result is that there is not, nor can there be, anything
like finality in these designs. Turret work has become one of the
most highly specialized departments of machine-shop practice, and
the design of these boxes is already the work of specialists. More
and more of the work of the common lathe is being constantly
appropriated by the semi- and full-automatic machines, a result to
which the magazine feeds for castings and forgings that cannot
pass through a hollow spindle have contributed greatly. New
work is constantly being attacked in the automatic machines that
was deemed impracticable a short time before ; some of the commoner
jobs are produced with greater economy, while heavier castings
and forgings, longer and larger bars, are tooled in the turret lathes.
A great deal of the efficiency of the box tools is due to the support
which is afforded to the cutting edges in opposition to the stress
of cutting. V-blocks are introduced in most cases as in fig. 7, and
these not only resist the stress of the cutting, but gauge the diameter
exactly.
Shearing Action. — In many tools a shearing operation takes place,
by which the stress of cutting is lessened. Though not very
apparent, it is present in the round-nosed roughing tools, in the
knife tools, in most milling cutters, as well as in all the shearing
tools proper — the scissors, shears, &c.
Planes. — We pass by the familiar great chisel group, used by wood-
workers, with a brief notice. Generally the tool angles of these lie
between 15° and 25 °. They include the chisels proper, and the
gouges in numerous shapes and proportions, used by carpenters,
HAND TOOLS]
TOOL
17
cabinet-makers, turners, stone-masons and allied tradesmen. These
are mostly thrust by hand to their work, without any mechanical
control. Other chisels are used percussively, as the stout mortise
chisels, some of the gouges, the axes, adzes and stone-mason's tools.
The large family of planes embody chisels coerced by the mechanical
control of the wooden (fig. 8) or metal stock. These also differ
Fig. 8. — Section through Plane.
A, Cutting iron. B, Top or back iron. C, Clamping screw.
D, Wedge. E, Broken shaving. F, Mouth,
from the chisels proper in the fact that the face of the cutting iron
does not coincide with the face of the material being cut, but lies
at an angle therewith, the stock of the plane exercising the necessary
coercion. We also meet with the function of the top or non-cutting
VA 1) b » T C 'D 'E* 1 ' 'F'
Fig. 9. — Group of Wood-boring Bits.
A, Spoon bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Expanding centre-bit.
Gilpin or Gedge auger. E, Jennings auger. F, Irwin auger.
A
D,
u
}
*
v® 1 h m
Fig. 10. — Group of Drills for Metal.
A, Common flat drill. B, Twist drill. C, Straight fluted drill.
D, Pin drill for flat countersinking. E, Arboring or facing tool.
K Tool for boring sheet-metal.
iron in breaking the shaving and conferring rigidity upon the cutting
iron. This rigidity is of similar value in cutting wood as in cutting
metal though in a less marked degree.
Drilling and Boring Tools. — Metal and timber are bored with
equal facility; the tools (figs. 9 and 10) embody similar differences
to the cutting tools already instanced for wood and metal. All the
wood- working bits are true cutting tools, and their angles, if analysed,
will be found not to differ much from those of the razor and common
chisel. The drills for metal furnish examples both of scrapers and
cutting tools. The common drill is only a scraper, but all the twist
drills cut with good incisive action. An advantage possessed by all
drills is that the cutting forces are balanced on each side of the
centre of rotation. The same action is embodied in the best wood-
boring bits and augers, as the Jennings, the Gilpin and the Irwin —
much improved forms of the old centre-bit. But the balance is
impaired if the lips are not absolutely symmetrical about the centre.
This explains the necessity for the substitution of machine grinding
for hand grinding of the lips, and great developments of twist drill
grinding machines. Allied to the drills are the D-bits, and the
reamers (fig. 11). The first- named both initiate and finish a hole;
r
_/~
V
Fig. 11.
A, D-bit. B, Solid reamer. C, Adjustable reamer, having six flat
blades forced outward by the tapered plug. Two lock-nuts at the
end fix the blades firmly after adjustment.
the second are used only for smoothing and enlarging drilled holes,
and for correcting holes which pass through adjacent castings or
plates. The reamers remove only a mere film, and their action
is that of scraping. The foregoing are examples of tools operated
from one end and unsupported at the other, except in so far as they
receive support within the work. One of the objectionable features
of tools operated in this way is that they tend to " follow the hole,"
and if this is cored, or rough-drilled out of truth, there is risk of
the boring tools following it to some extent at least. With the one
exception of the D-bit there is no tool which can be relied on to take
out a long bore with more than an approximation to concentricity
throughout. Boring tools (fig. 12) held in the slide-rest will spring
and bend and chatter, and unless the lathe is true, or careful com-
pensation is made for its want of truth, they will bore bigger at one
end than the other. Boring tools thrust by the back centre are
liable to wabble, and though they are variously coerced to prevent
them from turning round, that does not check the to-and-fro wabbly
Fig. 12. — Group of Boring Tools.
A , Round boring tool held in V-blocks on slide-rest. B, C, Square
and V-pointed boring tools. D, Boring bar with removable cutters,
held straight, or angularly.
motion from following the core, or rough bore. In a purely reaming
tool this is permitted, but it is not good in tools that have to initiate
the hole.
This brings us to the large class of boring tools which are supported
at each end by being held in bars carried between centres. There
are two main varieties: in one the cutters are fixed directly in
the bar (fig. 13, A to D), in the other in a head fitted on the bat
i8
TOOL
[HAND TOOLS
(fig. 13, E), hence termed a " boring head." As lathe heads are
fixed, the traverse cannot be imparted to the bars as in boring
machines. The boring heads can be traversed, or the work can be
Fig. 13. — Group of Supported Boring Tools.
A, Single-ended cutter in boring D, Flat double-ended finishing
bar. cutter.
B, Double-ended ditto. E, Boring head with three cutters
C, Flat single-ended finishing and three steady blocks.
cutter.
traversed by the mechanism of the lathe saddle. The latter must be
done when cutters are fixed in bars. A great deal of difference
exists in the details of the fittings both of bars and heads, but they
are not so arbitrary as they might seem at first sight. The principal
differences are those due to the number of cutters used, their shapes,
and their method of fastening. Bars receiving their cutters direct
include one, two or four, cutting on opposite sides, and therefore
balanced. Four give better balance than two, the cutters being
set at right angles. If a rough hole runs out of truth, a single cutter
is better than a double-ended one, provided a tool of the roughing
shape is used. The shape of the tools varies from roughing to
finishing, and their method of attachment is by screws, wedges or
nuts, but we cannot illustrate the numerous differences that are
met with.
Saws. — The saws are a natural connecting link between the chisels
and the milling cutters. Saws are used for wood, metal and stone.
Slabs of steel several inches
in thickness are sawn
through as readily as,
though more slowly than,
timber planks. Circular
and band saws are common
in the smithy and the
boiler and machine shops
for cutting off bars, forgings
and rolled sections. But
the tooth shapes are not
those used for timber, nor is
the cutting speed the same.
In the individual saw-teeth
both cutting and scraping
actions are illustrated (fig.
14). Saws which cut tim-
ber continuously with the
grain, as rip, hand, band,
circular, have incisive teeth.
For though many are desti-
tute of front rake, the
method of sharpening at
an angle imparts a true
shearing cut. But all cross-
cutting teeth scrape only,
the teeth being either of
triangular or of M-form,
variously modified. Teeth
for metal cutting also act
strictly by scraping. The
pitching of the teeth is
related to the nature of
the material and the
direction of cutting. It is coarser for timber than for metal,
coarser for ripping or sawing with the grain than for cross cutting,
coarser for soft than for hard woods. The setting of teeth,
or the bending over to right and left, by which the clearance is
provided for the blade of the saw, is subject to similar variations.
It is greatest for soft woods and least for metals, where in
fact the clearance is often secured without set, by merely thinning
the blade backwards. But it is greater for cross cutting than for
Fig. 14. — Typical Saw Teeth.
A , Teeth of band and ripping saws.
B, Teeth of circular saw for hard wood ;
shows set.
C, Ditto for soft wood.
D, Teeth of cross-cut saw.
E, M -teeth for ditto.
ripping timber. Gulleting follows similar rules. The softer the
timber, the greater the gulleting, to permit the dust to escape freely.
Milling Cutters. — Between a circular saw for cutting metal and
a thin milling cutter there is no essential difference. Increase the
thickness as if to produce a very wide saw, and the essential plain
edge milling cutter for metal results. In its simplest form the
milling cutter is a cylinder with teeth lying across its periphery, or
parallel with its axis — the edge mill (fig. 15), or else a disk with teeth
radiating on its face, or at right angles with its axis — the end mill
(fig. 16). Each is used indifferently for producing flat faces and
edges, and for cutting grooves which are rectangular in cross-section.
These milling cutters invade the province of the single-edged tools
of the planer, shaper and slotter. Of these two typical forms the
Fig. 15. — Group of Milling Cutters.
A, Narrow edge mill, with
straight teeth.
B, Wide edge mill with spiral
teeth.
C, Teeth on face and edges.
D, Cutter having teeth like C.
E, Flat teeth held in with screws
and wedges.
F, Large inserted tooth mill ; with
taper pins secure cutters.
Fig. 16. — Group of End Mills.
A, End mill with straight teeth. B, Ditto with spiral teeth.
C, Showing method of holding shell cutter on arbor, with screw
and key. D, T-slot cutter.
HAND TOOLS]
TOOL
19
changes are rung in great variety, ranging from the narrow slitting
tools which saw off bars, to the broad cutters of 24 in. or more in
width, used on piano-millers.
When more than about an inch in width, surfacing cylindrical
cutters are formed with spiral teeth (fig. 15, B), a device which is
^AWWVKWVl
m—m-
Fig. 17.
A, Straddle Mill, cutting faces and edges.
B, Set of three mills cutting grooves.
Fig. 18. — Group of Angular Mills.
A, Cutter with single slope.
B, Ditto, producing teeth in another cutter.
C, Double Slope Mill, with unequal angles.
essential to sweetness of operation, the action being that of shearing.
These have their teeth cut on universal machines, using the dividing
and spiral head and suitable change wheels, and after hardening
they are sharpened on universal grinders. When cutters exceed
about 6 in. in length the difficulties of hardening and grinding render
the " gang " arrangement more suitable. Thus, two, three or more
similar edge mills are set end to end on an arbor, with the spiral
teeth running in reverse directions, giving a broad face with balanced
endlong cutting forces. From these are built up the numerous
gang mills, comprising plane faces at right angles with each other,
of which the straddle mills are the best known (fig. 17, A). A
common element in these combinations is the key seat type B having
teeth on the periphery and on both faces as in fig. 15, C, D. By
these combinations half a dozen faces or more can be tooled simul-
taneously, and all alike, as long as the mills retain their edge. The
advantages over the work of the planer in this class of work are seen
in tooling the faces and edges of machine tables, beds and slides, in
shaping the faces and edges of caps to fit their bearing blocks. In
a single cutter of the face type, but having teeth on back and edge
also, T-slots are readily milled (fig. 16, D) ; this if done on the planer
would require re-settings of awkwardly cranked tools, and more
measurement and testing with templets than is required on a
milling machine.
When angles, curves and profile sections are introduced, the
capacity of the milling cutter is infinitely increased. The making
of the cutters is also more difficult. Angular cutters (fig. 18) are
used for producing the teeth of the mills themselves, for shaping
the teeth of ratchet wheels, and, in combination with straight cutters
in gangs, for angular sections. With curves, or angles and curves
in combination, taps, reamers and drills can be fluted or grooved,
the teeth of wheels shaped, and in
fact any outlines imparted (fig. 19).
Here the work of the fitter, as well
as that of the planing and allied
machines, is invaded, for much of
this work if prepared on these
machines would have to be finished
laboriously by the file.
There are two ways in which
milling cutters are used, by which
their value is extended; one is to
transfer some of their work proper
to the lathe and boring machine,
the other is by duplication. A
good many light circular sections,
as wheel rims, hitherto done in lathes, are regularly prepared in
the milling machine, gang mills being used for tooling the peri-
phery and edges at once, and the wheel blank being rotated.
Similarly, holes are bored by a rotating mill of the cylindrical type.
Internal screw threads are done similarly. Duplication occurs
when milling sprocket wheels in line, or side by side, in milling nuts
on an arbor, in milling a number of narrow faces arranged side by
side, in cutting the teeth of several spur-wheels on one arbor and
in milling the teeth of racks several at a time.
One of the greatest advances in the practice of milling was that
of making backed-off cutters. • The sectional shape behind the tooth
Fig. 19.
A, Convex Cutter.
B, Concave Cutter.
C, Profile Cutter.
face is continued identical in form with the profile of the edge, the
outline being carried back as a curve equal in radius to that of the
cutting edge (fig. 20). The
result is that the cutter may
be sharpened on the front
faces of the teeth without
interfering with the shape
which willbe milled, because
the periphery is always con-
stant in outline. After re-
peated sharpenings the teeth
would assume the form indi-
cated by the shaded portion
two of the teeth. The
Fig. 20.-
-Relieved Teeth of Milling
Cutter.
limit of grinding is reached
when the tooth becomes too
thin and weak to stand up to its work. But such cutters will endure
weeks or months of constant service before becoming useless. The
Fig. 21. — Group of Scrapes.
A, Metal-worker's scrape, pushed D, Diamond point used by
straightforward. wood-turners.
B, Ditto, operated laterally. E, F, Cabinet-makers' scrapes.
C, Round-nosed tool used by
wood-turners,
chief advantage of backing-off or relieving is in its application to
cutters of intricate curves, which would be difficult or impossible to
sharpen along their edges. Such cutters, moreover, if made with
R S T U
Fig. 22. — Cross-sectional Shapes of Files.
/, Topping. P, Round.
K, Reaper. Q, Pit-saw or
L, Knife. frame-saw.
M, Three-square. R, Half-round.
N, Cant. S, T, Cabinet.
0, Slitting or U, Tumbler,
feather-edge. V, Crossing,
ordinary teeth would soon be worn down, and be much weaker than
the strong form of teeth represented in fig. 20. The relieving is usually
done in special lathes, employing a profile tool which cuts the surface
A,
Warding.
B,
Mill.
c,
Flat.
D,
Pillar.
£,
Square.
F,
G, Swaged reapers.
u.
Mill.
LJC
E F
Parallel or blunt.
Taper bellied.
Knife reaper.
Tapered square.
Fig. 23. — Longitudinal Shapes of Files.
E, Parallel triangular.
F, Tapered triangular.
G, Parallel round.
H, Taper or rat-tail.
/, Parallel half-
round.
K, Tapered half-
round.
L, Riffler.
20
TOOL
[HAND TOOLS
of the teeth back at the required radius. Relieved cutters can of
course be strung together on a single arbor to form gang mills, by
which very complicated profiles may be tooled, beyond the capacity
of a single solid mill.
Scrapes. — The tools which operate by scraping (fig. 21) include
many of the broad finishing tools of the turner in wood and metal
(cf. fig. 2), and the scrape of the wood worker and the fitter. The
practice of scraping surfaces true, applied to surface plates, machine
slides and similar objects, was due to Sir Joseph Whitworth. It
superseded the older and less accurate practice of grinding to a
mutual fit. Now, with machines of precision, the practice of grinding
has to a large extent displaced the more costly scraping. Scraping
is, however, the only method available when the most perfect contact
is desired. Its advantage lies in the fact that the efforts of the work-
man can be localized over the smallest areas, and nearly infinitesimal
amounts removed, a mere fine dust in the last stages.
Files. — These must in strictness be classed with scrapes, for,
although the points are keen, there is never any front rake. Collec-
tively there is a shearing action because the rows of teeth are cut
diagonally. The sectional forms (fig. 22) and the longitudinal
forms (fig. 23) of the files are numerous, to adapt them to all classes
of work. In addition, the method of cutting,
and the degrees of coarseness of the teeth, vary,
being single, or float cut, or double cut (fig. 24).
The rasps are another group. Degrees of coarse-
ness are designated as rough, middle cut, bastard
cut, second cut, smooth, double dead smooth;
the first named is the coarsest, the last the
finest. The terms are relative, since the larger
a file is the coarser are its teeth, though of the
same name as the teeth in a shorter file, which
are finer.
Screwing Tools. — The forms of these will be
found discussed under Sc rew. They can scarcely
be ranked among cutting tools, yet the best kinds
remove metal with ease. This is due in great
measure to the good clearance allowed, and to
the narrowness of the cutting portions. Front
rake is generally absent, though in some of the
best screwing dies there is a slight amount.
Shears and Punches. — These may be of cutting
or non-cutting types. Shears (fig. 25) have no
front rake, but only a slight clearance. They
generally give a slight shearing cut, because the blades do not
lie parallel, but the cutting begins at one end and continues in detail
to the other. But strictly the shears, like the punches, act by a
■
Fig. 24. — File
Teeth.
A, Float cut.
B, Double cut.
C, Rasp cut.
xmmzzm&m
Fig. 25. — Shear Blades.
a, a. Blades.
b, Plate being sheared.
FlG. 26. — Punching.
a, Punch, b, Bolster.
c, Plate being punched.
severe detrusive effort; for the punch, with its bolster (fig. 26),
forms a pair of cylindrical shears. Hence a shorn or punched
edge is always rough, ragged, and covered with minute, shallow
cracks. Both processes are therefore dangerous to iron and steel.
The metal being unequally stressed, fracture starts in the annulus
of metal. Hence the advantage of the practice of reamering out
this annulus, which is completely removed by enlargement by
about an | in. diameter, so that homogeneous metal is left throughout
the entire unpunched section. The same results follow reamering
both in iron and steel. Annealing, according to many experiments,
has the same effect as reamering, due to the rearrangement of the
molecules of metal. The perfect practice with punched plates
is to punch, reamer, and finally to anneal. The effect of shearing
is practically identical with that of punching, and planing and
annealing shorn edges has the same influence as reamering and
annealing punched holes.
Hammers. — These form an immense group, termed percussive,
from the manner of their use (fig. 27). Every trade has its own
peculiar shapes, the -total of which number many scores, each with
its own appropriate name, and ranging in size from the minute
forms of the jeweler to the sledges of the smith and boiler maker
and the planishing hammers of the coppersmith. Wooden hammers
are termed mallets, their purpose being to avoid bruising tools or
the surfaces of work. Most trades use mallets of some form or
another. Hammer handles are rigid in all cases except certain
percussive tools of the smithy, which are handled with withy rods,
or iron rods flexibly attached to the tools, so that when struck by
the sledge they shall not jar the hands. The fullering tools, and
flatters, and setts, though not hammers strictly, are actuated by
percussion. The dies of the die forgers are actuated percussivelyi
being closed by powerful hammers. The action of caulking tools
is percussive, and so is that of moulders' rammers.
rm
Fig. 27. — Hammers.
A , Exeter type.
B, Joiner's hammer.
C, Canterbury claw hammer
(these are wood-workers'
hammers).
D, Engineer's hammer, ball pane.
E, Ditto, cross-pane.
Moulding Tools. — This is a group of tools which, actuated either
by simple pressure or percussively, mould, shape and model forms
in the sand of the moulder, in the metal of the smith, and in press
work. All the tools of the moulder (fig. 28) with the exception of
the rammers and vent wires act by moulding the sand into shapes
F, Ditto, straight, pane.
G, Sledge hammer, straight
pane.
H, Ditto, double-faced.
/, K, L, M, Boiler makers' ham-
mers.
N, Scaling hammer.
^°<^°--
Fig. 28. — Moulding Tools.
J, Button sleeker.
K, Pipe smoother.
A , Square trowel. E, Flange bead.
B, Heart trowel. F, Hollow bead.
C, D, Cleaners. G, H, Square corner sleekers.
by pressure. Their contours correspond with the plane and curved
surfaces of moulds, and with the requirements of shallow and deep
work. They are made in iron and brass. The fullers, swages and
flatters of the smith, and the dies used with hammer and presses,
all mould by percussion or by pressure, the work taking the counter-
part of the dies, or of some portion of them. The practice of die
forging consists almost wholly of moulding processes.
Tool Steels. — These now include three kinds. The common
steel, the controlling element in which is carbon, requires to be
hardened and tempered, and must not be overheated, about 500 F.
being the highest temperature permissible — the critical tempera-
ture. Actually this is seldom allowed to be reached. The dis-
advantage of this steel is that its capabilities are limited, because the
heat generated by heavy cutting soon spoils the tools. The second
is the Mushet steel, invented by R. F. Mushet in 1868, a carbon
steel, in which the controlling element is tungsten, of which it contains
from about 5 to 8 %. It is termed self-hardening, because it is
cooled in air instead of being quenched in water. Its value consists
in its endurance at high temperatures, even at a low red heat.
Until the advent of the high-speed steels, Mushet steel was
reserved for all heavy cutting, and for tooling hard tough
steels. It is made in six different tempers suitable for various
kinds of duty. Tools of Mushet steel must not be forged below
a red heat. It is hardened by reheating the end to a white heat,
and blowing cold in an air blast. The third kind of steel is termed
high-speed, because much higher cutting speeds are practicable
with these than with other steels. Tools made of them are hardened
in a blast of cold air. The controlling elements are numerous and
vary in the practice of different manufacturers, to render the
MACHINE TOOLS]
TOOL
21
tools adaptable to cutting various classes of metals and alloys.
Tungsten is the principal controlling element, but chromium is
essential, and molybdenum and vanadium are often found of
value. The steels are forged at a yellow tint, equal to about
1850 F. They are raised to a white heat for hardening, and cooled
in an air blast to a bright red. They are then often quenched in a
bath of oil.
The first public demonstration of the capacities of high speed
steels was made at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Since that time
great advances have been made. It has been found that the
section of the shaving limits the practicable speeds, so that, although
cutting speeds of 300 and 400 ft. a minute are practicable with
light cuts, it is more economical to limit speeds to less than 100 ft.
per minute with much heavier cuts. The use of water is not
absolutely essential as in using tools of carbon steel. The new
steels show to much greater advantage on mild steel than on cast
iron. They are more useful for roughing down than for finishing.
The removal of 20 lb of cuttings per minute with a single tool
is common, and that amount is often exceeded, so that a lathe
soon becomes half buried in turnings unless they are carted away.
The horse-power absorbed is proportionately large. Ordinary
heavy lathes will take from 40 to 60 h.p. to drive them, or from
four to six times more than is required by lathes of the same centres
using carbon steel tools. Many remarkable records have been
given of the capacities of the new steels. Not only turning and
planing tools but drills and milling cutters are now regularly made
of them. It is a revelation to see these drills in their rapid descent
through metal. A drill of I in. in diameter will easily go through
5 in. thickness of steel in one minute.
Machine Tools
The machine tools employed in modern engineering factories
number many hundreds of well-defined and separate types.
Besides these, there are hundreds more designed for special
functions, and adapted only to the work of firms who handle
specialities. Most of the first named and many of the latter admit
of grouping in classes. The following is a natural classification:
I. Turning Lathes. — These, by common consent, stand as a
class alone. The cardinal feature by which they are distin-
guished is that the work being operated on rotates against a
tool which is held in a rigid fixture — the rest. The axis of
rotation may be horizontal or vertical.
II. Reciprocating Machines.- — The feature by which these
are characterized is that the relative movements of tool and
work take place in straight lines, to and fro. The recipro-
cations may occur in horizontal or vertical planes.
III. Machines which Drill and Bore Holes. — These have some
features in common with the lathes, inasmuch as drilling and
boring are often done in the lathes, and some facing and turning
in the drilling and boring machines, but they have become
highly differentiated. In the foregoing groups tools having
either single or double cutting edges are used.
IV. Milling Machines. — This group uses cutters having
teeth arranged equidistantly round a cylindrical body, and
may therefore be likened to saws of considerable thickness.
The cutters rotate over or against work, between which and the
cutters a relative movement of travel takes place, and they may
therefore be likened to reciprocating machines, in which a
revolving cutter takes the place of a single-edged one.
V. Machines for Cutting the Teeth of Gear-wheels. — These
comprise two sub-groups, the older type in which rotary milling
cutters are used, and the later type in which reciprocating
single-edged tools are employed. Sub-classes are designed for
one kind of gear only, as spur-wheels, bevels, worms, racks,
&c.
VI. Grinding Machinery. — This is a large and constantly
extending group, largely the development of recent years.
Though emery grinding has been practised in crude fashion for
a century, the difference in the old and the new methods lies
in the embodiment of the grinding wheel in machines of high
precision, and in the rivalry of the wheels of corundum, car-
borundum and alundum, prepared in the electric furnace with
those of emery.
VII. Sawing Machines. — In modern practice these take an
important part in cutting iron, steel and brass. Few shops
are without them, and they are numbered by dozens in some
establishments. They include circular saws for hot and cold
metal, band saws and hack saws.
VIII. Shearing and Punching Machines. — These occupy a
border line between the cutting and non-cutting tools. Some
must be classed with the first, others with the second. The
detrusive action also is an important element, more especially
in the punches.
IX. Hammers and Presses. — Here there is a percussive action
in the hammers, and a purely squeezing one in the presses.
Both are made capable of exerting immense pressures, but the
latter are far more powerful than the former.
X. Portable Tools.— This large group can best be classified
by the common feature of being readily removable for operation
on large pieces of erection that cannot be taken to the regular
machines. Hence they are all comparatively small and light.
Broadly they include diverse tools, capable of performing
nearly the whole of the operations summarized in the pre-
ceding paragraphs.
XI. Appliances. — There is a very large number of articles
which are neither tools nor machine tools, but which are in-
dispensable to the work of these; that is, they do not cut, or
shape, or mould, but they hold, or grip, or control, or aid in
some way or other the carrying through of the work. Thus
a screw wrench, an angle plate, a wedge, a piece of packing, a
bolt, are appliances. In modern practice the appliance in
the form of a templet or jig is one of the principal elements
in the interchangeable system.
XII. Wood-working Machines. — This group does for the
conversion of timber what the foregoing accomplish for metal.
There is therefore much underlying similarity in many machines
for wood and metal, but still greater differences, due to the
conditions imposed on the one hand by the very soft, and on the
other by the intensely hard, materials operated on in the two
great groups. -
XIII. Measurement. — To the scientific engineer, equally
with the astronomer, the need for accurate measurement is of
paramount importance. Neither good fitting nor interchange-
ability of parts is possible without a system of measurement,
at once accurate and of ready and rapid application. Great
advances have been made in this direction lately.
I. — Lathes^ 1
The popular conception of a lathe, derived from the familiar
machine of the wood turner, would not give a correct idea of the
lathe which has been developed as the engineer's machine tool.
This has become differentiated into nearly fifty well-marked.types,
until in some cases even the term lathe has been dropped for more
precise definitions, as vertical boring machine, automatic machine,
while in others prefixes are necessary, as axle lathe, chucking lathe,
cutting-off lathe, wheel lathe, and so on. With regard to size and
mass the height of centres may range from 3 in. in the bench lathes
to 9 or 10 ft. in gun lathes, and weights will range from say 50 lb
to 200 tons, or more in exceptional cases. While in soma the
mechanism is the simplest possible, in others it is so complicated
that only the specialist is able to grasp its details.
Early Lathes. — Space will not permit us to trace the evolution
of the lathe from the ancient bow and card lathe and the pole
lathe, in each of which the rotary movement was alternately for-
ward, for cutting, and backward. The curious thing is that the
wheel-driven lathe was a novelty so late as the 14th and 15th
centuries, and had not wholly displaced the ancient forms even in
the West in the 19th century, and the cord lathe still survives in
the East. Another thing is that all the old lathes were of dead
centre, instead of running mandrel type; and not until 1794 did the
use of metal begin to take the place of wood in lathe construction.
Henry Maudslay (1771-1831) did more than any other man to
develop the engineer's self-acting lathe in regard to its essential
mechanism, but it was, like its immediate successors for fifty
years after, a skeleton-like, inefficient weakling by comparison
with the lathes of the present time.
Broad Types. — A ready appreciation of the broad differences in
lathe types may be obtained by considering the differences in the
great groups of work on which lathes are designed to operate.
Castings and forgings that are turned in lathes vary not only in
size, but also in relative dimensions. Thus a long piece of driving
shafting, or a railway axle, is very differently proportioned in length
and diameter from a railway wheel or a wheel tire. Further, while
the shaft has to be turned only, the wheel or the tire has to be
turned and bored. Here then we have the first cardinal distinction
between lathes, viz. those admitting work between centres (fig. 29)
and face and boring lathes. In the first the piece of work is pivoted
and driven between the centres of head-stock and tail-stock or loose
poppet; in the second, it is held and gripped only by the dogs or
22
TOOL
[LATHES
jaws of a face-plate, on the head-stock spindle, the loose
poppet being omitted.
These, however, are broad types only, since proportions
of length to diameter differ, and with them lathe designs
are modified whenever there is a sufficient amount of work
of one class to justify the laying down of a special machine
or machines to deal with it. Then further, we have dupli-
cate designs, in which, for example, provision is made in
one lathe for turning two or three long shafts simultane-
ously, or for turning and boring two wheels or tires at
once. Further, the position of the axis of a face lathe
need not be horizontal, as is necessary when the turning
of long pieces has to be done between centres. There are
obvious advantages in arranging it vertically, the princi-
pal being that castings and forgings can be more easily
set and secured to a horizontal chuck than to one the face
of which lies vertically. The chuck is also better sup-
ported, and higher rates of turning are practicable. In
recent years these vertical lathes or vertical turning and -
boring mills (fig. 30) have been greatly increasing in num-
bers; they also occur in several designs to suit either
general or special duties, some of them being used for
boring only, as chucking lathes. Some are of immense
size, capable of boring the field magnets of electric
generators 40 ft. in diameter.
Standard Lathes. — But for doing what is termed
the general work of the engineer's turnery, the stan-
dard lathes (fig. 29) predominate, i.e. self-acting, sliding
and surfacing lathes with headstock, loose poppet and
slide-rest, centres, face plates and chucks, and an equip-
ment by which long pieces are turned, either between
centres or on the face chucks, and bored. One of
the greatest objections to the employment of these
standard types of lathes for indiscriminate duty is due
to the limited height of the centres or axis of the head-
stock, above the face of the bed. This is met generally
by providing a gap or deep recess in the bed next
the fast headstock, deep enough to take face work of
large diameter. The device is very old and very common,
but when the volume of work warrants the employment
of separate lathes for face-work and for that done
between centres it is better to have them.
Screw-cutting. — A most important section of the work
of the engineer's turnery is that of cutting screws (see
Screw). This has resulted in differentiation fully as
great as that existing between centres and face-work.
The slide-rest was designed with this object, though
it is also used for plain turning. The standard " self-
acting sliding, surfacing and screw-cutting lathe " is
essentially the standard turning lathe, with the addi-
tion of the screw-cutting mechanism. This includes a
master screw — the lead or guide screw, which is
gripped with a clasp nut, fastened to the travelling
carriage of the slide-rest. The lead-screw is connected
to the headstock spindle by change wheels, which are
the variables through which the relative rates of move-
ment of the spindle and the lead-screw, and therefore
of the screw-cutting tool, held and traversed in the
slide-rest, are effected. By this beautiful piece of
mechanism a guide screw, the pitch of which is per-
manent, is made to cut screw-threads of an almost
infinite number of possible pitches, both in whole and
fractional numbers, by virtue of rearrangements of
the variables, the change wheels. The objection to
this method is that the trains of change wheels have
to be recalculated and rearranged as often as a screw
of a different pitch has to be cut, an operation which
takes some little time. To avoid this, the nest or
cluster system of gears has been largely adopted, its
most successful embodiment being in the Hendey-
Norton lathe. Here all the change wheels are arranged
in a series permanently on one shaft underneath the
headstock, and any one of them is put into engagement
by a sliding pinion operated by the simple movement
of a lever. Thus the lead-screw is driven at different
rates without removing any wheel from its spindle.
This has been extensively applied to both small and
large lathes. But a moment's thought will show that
even this device is too cumbrous when large numbers of
small screws are required. There is, for example, little
in common between the screw, say of 5 or 6 ft. in
length, for a massive penstock or valve, and |-in. bolts,
or the small screws required in thousands for electrical
fittings. Clearly while the self-acting screw-cutting
lathe is the best possible machine to use for the first,
it is unsuitable for the last. So here at once, from the
point of view of screw cutting only, an important diver-
gence takes place, and one which has ultimately led
to very high specialization.
Small Screws. — When small screws and bolts are cut in
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LATHES]
TOOL
23
Urge quantities, the guide-screw and change wheels give place to other
devices, one of which involves the use of a separate master-screw
for every different pitch, the other that, of encircling cutting in-
struments or dies. The first are represented by the chasing lathe,
the second by the screwing lathes and automatics. Though the
principles of operation are thus stated in brief, the details in design
are most extensive and varied.
In a chasing lathe the master-screw or hob, which may be either
at the rear of the headstock or in front of the slide-rest, receives
a hollow clasp-nut or a half-nut, or a star-nut containing several
pitches, which, partaking of the traverse movement of the screw-
thread, imparts the same horizontal movement to the cutting tool.
The latter is sometimes carried in a hinged holder, sometimes in
a common slide-rest. The attendant throws it into engagement
at the beginning of a traverse, and out when completed, and also
this is an economical system, but in others not. It cannot be
considered so when bolts, screws and allied forms are of small
dimensions.
Hollow Mandrel Lathes. — It has been the growing practice since
the last decade of the 19th century to produce short articles, re-
quired in large quantities, from a long bar. This involves making
the lathe with a hollow mandrel ; that is, the mandrel of the head-
stock has a hole drilled right through it, large enough to permit
of the passage through it of the largest bar which the class of work
requires. Thus, if the largest section of the finished pieces should
require a bar of i| in. diameter, the hole in the mandrel would be
made if in. Then the bar, inserted from the rear-end, is gripped
oy a chuck or collet at the front, the operations of turning, screwing
and cutting off done, and the bar then thrust farther through
to the exact length for the next set of identical operations to be
i!
.....
u
';
1
----
= z-_
I
--. f
1
&':
...!
....
Fig. 30. — Boring and Turning Mill, vertical lathe. (Webster Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.)
A, Table, running with stem in vertical bearing.
B, Frame of machine.
C, Driving cones.
D, Handle giving the choice of two rates, through concealed
sliding gears, shown dotted.
E, Bevel-gears driving up to pinion gearing with ring of teeth
on the table.
F, Saddle moved on cross-rail G.
changes the hobs for threads of different sections. The screwed
stays of locomotive fire-boxes are almost invariably cut on chasing
lathes of this class.
In the screwing machines the thread is cut with dies, which
encircle the rotating bar; or alternatively the dies rotate round a
fixed pipe, and generally the angular lead or advance of the thread
draws the dies along. These dies differ in no essentials from similar
tools operated by a hand lever at the bench. There are many
modifications of these lathes, because the work is so highly special-
ized that they are seldom used for anything except the work of
cutting screws varying but little in dimensions. Such being the
case they can hardly be classed as lathes, and are often termed
screwing machines, because no provision exists for preliminary
turning work, which is then done elsewhere, the task of turning
and threading being divided between two lathes. In some cases
H, Vertical slide, carrying turret /.
K, Screw feeding F across.
L, Splined shaft connecting to H for feeding the latter up of
down.
M, M, Worm-gears throwing out clutches N, N at predeter-
mined points.
0, Cone pulley belted up to P, for driving the feeds of saddle
and down-slide.
performed, and so on. This mechanism is termed a wire feed, because
the first lathes which were built of this type only operated on large
wires; the heavy bar lathes have been subsequently developed
from it. In the more advanced types of lathes this feeding through
the hollow spindle does not require the intervention of the attendant,
but is performed automatically.
The amount of preliminary work which has to be done upon a
portion of a bar before it is ready for screwing varies. The simplest
object is a stud, which is a. parallel piece screwed up from each end.
A bolt is a screw with a head of hexagonal, square or circular
form, and the production of this involves turning the shank and
shoulder and imparting convexity to the end, as well as screwing.
But screw-threads have often to be cut on objects which are not
primarily bolts, but which are spindles of various kinds used on
mechanisms and machine tools, and in which reductions in the form
24
TOOL
[LATHES
of steps have to be made, and recesses, or flanges, or other features
ptoduced. Out of the demands for this more complicated work,
as well as for plain bolts and studs, has arisen the great group of
turret or capstan lathes (fig. 31) and the automatics or automatic
screw machines which are a high development of the turret lathes.
Turret Lathes. — The turret or capstan (fig. 32) is a device for grip-
ping as many separate tools as there are distinct operations to be
performed on a piece of work; the number ranges from four to as
many as twenty in some highly elaborated machines, but five or
six is the usual number of holes. These tools are brought round
Fig. 31. — Turret,
Bed.
Waste oil tray.
Headstock.
Hollow mandrel.
Cones keyed to D.
Split tapered close-in chuck, actuated by tube G.
H, Toggle dogs which push G.
J, Coned collar acting on H.
K, Handle to slide / through sleeve on bar L.
M, Rack slid on release of chuck, moving bearing ft torward,
A,
B,
C,
D,
E,
F,
Lathe. ^ (Webster 1
N,
O,
P,
Q,
R,
s,
T,
V,
i Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.)
Bearing to feed the work through mandrel (constituting the
wire or bar feed). A collar is clamped on the work, and is
pushed by the bearing N at each time of feeding.
Cross-slide.
Hand-wheel operating screw to travel O.
Turret-slide.
Cross-handle moving Q to and fro.
Turret or capstan.
U, Sets of fast and loose pulleys, for open and crossed belts.
Cone belted down to E on lathe.
Fig. 32. — Plan of Set of Turret Tools.
D
operation or
(A. Herbert, Ltd.)
A, Turret.
B, Tool for first
chucking.
C, Cutting tools for second
operation, starting or point-
ing.
Box tool carrying two cutters
for third operation, rough
turning.
E, Similar tool for fourth opera-
tion, finish turning.
F, Screwing tools in head for
final operation of screwing.
in due succession, each one doing its little share of work, until the
cycle of operations required to produce the object is complete,
the cycle including such operations as turning and screwing, rough-
ing and finishing cuts, drilling and boring. Severance of the finished
piece is generally done by a tool or tools held by a cross-slide between
the headstock and turret, so termed because its movements take
place at right angles with the axis of the machine. This also
often performs the duty of " forming," by which is meant the shap-
ing of the exterior portion of an object of irregular outline, by a
tool the edge of which is an exact counterpart of the profile required.
The exterior of a cycle hub is shaped thus, as also are numerous
handles and other objects involving various curves and shoulders,
&c. The tool is fed perpendicularly to the axis of the rotat-
ing work and completes outlines at once: if this were done in
ordinary lathes much tedious manipulation of separate tools would
be involved.
Automatics. — But the marvel of the modern automatics (fig. 33)
lies in the mechanism by which the cycle of operations is rendered
absolutely independent of attendance, beyond the first adjustments
and the insertion of a fresh bar as often as the previous one becomes
used up. The movements of the rotating turret and of the cross-
slide, and the feeding of the bar through the hollow spindle, take
place within a second, at the conclusion of the operation preceding.
These movements are effected by a set of mechanism independent
of that by which the headstock spindle is rotated, viz. by cams
or cam drums on a horizontal cam shaft, or other equivalent
device, differing much in arrangement, but not principle. Move-
ments are hastened or retarded, or pauses of some moments may
ensue, according to the cam arrangements devised, which of course
have to be varied for pieces of different proportions and dimensions.
But when the machines with their tools are once set up, they will
run for days or weeks, repeating precisely the same cycle of opera-
tions; they are self-lubricating, and only require to be fed with
fresh lengths of bar and to have their tools resharpened occasionally.
Of these automatics alone there are something like a dozen distinct
types, some with their turrets vertical, others horizontal. Not
only so but the use of a single spindle is not always deemed suffi-
ciently economical, and some of these designs now have two, three
and four separate work spindles grouped in one head.
LATHES]
TOOL
25
Specialized Lathes. — Outside of these main types of lathes there
are a large number which do not admit of group classification.
They are designed for special duties, and only a representative list
can be given. Lathes for turning tapered work form a limited
Fig. 33. — Automatic Lathe or Screw Machine. (A. Herbert, Ltd.)
A, Main body. a, a
B, Waste oil tray.
C, Headstock.
D, Wire-feed tube.
E, Slide for closing chuck.
F, Shaft for ditto. c,
G, Feed-slide. d,d
H, Piece of work. e, e,
J, Turret wich box tools.
K, Turret slide.
L, Saddle for ditto, adjustable
along bed. T,
M, Screw for locating adjustable
slide.
N, Cut-off and forming cross-
slide. V,
0, 0, Back and front tool-holders
on slide. W,
P, Cam shaft. g, g
Q, Cam drum for operating
chuck. X,
R, Cam drum for operating Y,
turret.
5, Cam disk for actuating Z,
cross-slide.
, a, Cams for actuating chuck
movements through pins
6, b. The cam which re-
turns D is adjustable but
is not in view.
Feeding cam for turret.
Return cams for turret.
Cams on cam disk for oper-
ating the lever /, which
actuates the cut-off and
forming slide.
Worm-wheel which drives
cam shaft by a worm on
the same shaft as the
feed-pulley U.
Handwheel on worm shaft for
making first adjustments.
Change feed disk.
.Change feed dogs adjustable
round disk.
Change feed lever.
Oil tube and spreader for
lubricating tools and work.
Tray for tools, &c.
number, and they include the usual provisions for ordinary turning.
In some designs change wheels are made use of for imparting a
definite movement of cross traverse to the tool, which being com-
pounded with the parallel sliding movements produces the taper.
In others an upper bed carrying the heads and work swivels on a
lower bed, which carries the slide rest. More often tapers are
turned by a cross adjustment of the loose poppet, or by a taper
attachment at the rear of the lathe, which coerces the movement
of the top or tool-carrying slide of the rest. Or, as in short tapers,
the slide-rest is set to the required angle on its carriage. Balls
are sometimes turned by a spherical attachment to the slide-rest
of an ordinary lathe. Copying lathes are those in which an object
is reproduced from a pattern precisely like the objects required.
The commonest example is that in which gun-stocks and the spokes
of wheels are turned, but these are used for timber, and the engineer's
copying lathe uses a form or cam and a milling cutter. The form
milling machine is the copying machine for metal-work. The
manufacture of boilers has given birth to two kinds of lathes, one
for turning the boiler ends, the other the boiler flue flanges, the
edges of which have to be caulked. Shaft pulleys have appropriated
a special lathe containing provision for turning the convexity of
the faces. Lathes are duplicated in two or three ways. Two,
four, six or eight tools sometimes operate simultaneously on a piece
of work. Two lathes are mounted on one bed. A tool will be boring
a hole while another is turning the edges of the same wheel. One
will be boring, another turning a wheel tire, and so on. The rolls
for iron and steel mills have special lathes for trueing them up.
The thin sheet metal-work produced by spinning has given rise to
a special kind of spinning lathe where pressure, and not cutting,
is the method adopted.
_ Methods of Holding and Rotating Work. Chucks.— The term chuck
signifies an appliance used in the lathe to hold and rotate work.
As the dimensions and shapes of the latter vary extensively, so
also do those of the chucks. Broadly, however, the latter corre-
spond with the two principal classes of work done in the lathe,
that between centres, and that held at one end only or face work.
This of course is an extremely comprehensive classification, because
chucks of the same name differ vastly when used in small and large
lathes. The chucks, again, used in turret work, though they grip
the work by one end only, differ entirely in design from the face
chucks proper.
Chucking between Centres. — The simplest and by far the commonest
method adopted is to drill countersunk centres at the ends of the
work to be turned, in the centre or longitudinal axis (fig. 34, A),
and support these on the point centres of headstock and poppet.
The angle included by the centres is usually 6o°, and the points
may enter the work to depths ranging from as little as ^ in. in very
light pieces to J in., f in. or I in. in the heaviest. Obviously a
piece centred thus cannot be rotated by the mere revolution of the
lathe, but it has to be driven by some other agent making con-
A , Centring and driving ; a, point
centre; b, carrier; c, driver
fixed in slot in body of point
centre; d, back centre; e,
work.
B, Face-plate driver or catch-
plate; a, centre; b, driver.
C, Common heart-shaped carrier.
D, Clement doubledriver; a, face-
plate ; b, b, drivers ; c, loose
plate carrying drivers.
nexion between it and the mandrel. The wood turner uses a forked
or prong centre to obtain the necessary leverage at the headstock
end, but that would be useless in metal. A driver is therefore used,
of which there are several forms (fig. 34), the essential element
being a short stiff prong of metal set away from the centre, and rotat-
ing the work directly, or against a carrier which encircles and
pinches the work. As this method of driving sets up an unbalanced
force, the " Clement " or double driver (fig. 34, D), was invented,
and is frequently made use of, though not nearly so much as the
common single driver. In large and heavy work it is frequently
the practice to drive in another way, by the dogs of the face-plate.
Steadies. — Pieces of work which are rigid enough to withstand
the stress of cutting do not require any support except the centres.
Fig. 35.
A, Travelling steady with adjust- slotted bolt holes a, a;b, b,
able studs a, a; b, work; brass or steel facings.
c, tool ; d, slide-rest. C, Fixed steady with hinged top
B, Steady with horizontal and and three setting pieces.
vertical adjustment through
But long and comparatively slender pieces have to be steadied at
intermediate points (fig. 35). Of devices for this purpose there
are many designs; some are fixed or bolted to the bed and are
shifted when necessary to new positions, and others are bolted to
the carriage of the slide-rest and move along with it — travelling
26
TOOL
[LATHES
steadies. In some the work is steadied in a vee, or a right angle,
in others adjustable pins or arms are brought into contact with it.
As the pressure of the cut would cause an upward as well as back-
ward yielding of the work, these two movements are invariably
provided against, no matter in what ways the details of the steadies
are worked out. Before a steady can be used, a light cut has to
be taken in the locality where the steady has to take its bearing,
to render the work true in that place. The travelling steady
follows immediately behind the tool, coming in contact therefore
with finished work continually.
Mandrels. — Some kinds of work are carried between centres
indirectly, upon mandrels or arbors (fig. 36). This is the method
w ■ "
w\
_J
1 **■[
m.
A
u
- . t .j-.
.
Fig. 36. — Mandrels.
A , Plain mandrel. B, Stepped mandrel. C, Expanding mandrel,
adopted when wheels, pulleys, bushes and similar articles are bored
first and turned afterwards, being chucked by the bore hole, which
fits on a mandrel. The latter is then driven between point centres
and the bore fits the mandrel sufficiently tightly to resist the stress
of turning. The large number of bores possible involves stocking
a considerable number of mandrels of different diameters. As it
is not usual to turn a mandrel as often as a piece of work requires
chucking, economy is studied by the use of stepped mandrels, which
comprise several diameters, say from three to a dozen. A better
device is the expanding mandrel, of which there are several forms.
The essential principle in all is the capacity for slight adjustments
in diameter, amounting to from j in. to J in., by the utilization
of a long taper. A split, springy cylinder may be moved endwise
over a tapered body, or separate single keys or blades may be
similarly moved.
Face-Work. — That kind of work in which support is given at the
headstock end only, the centre of the movable poppet not being
required, is known as face-work. It includes pieces the length of
which ranges from something less than the diameter to about
three or four times the diameter, the essential condition being that
the unsupported end shall be sufficiently steady to resist the stress
of cutting. Work which has to be bored, even though long, cannot
be steadied on the back centre, and if long is often supported on
a cone plate. The typical appliance used for face-work is the common
face-plate (fig. 37). It is a plain disk, screwed on the mandrel
the jaws being independent, there is no self-centring capacity, and
thus much time is lost. A large group, therefore, are rendered
self-centring by the turning of a ring which actuates a face scroll
Fig. 37. — Face-plate.
A, Screwed hole to fit mandrel nose. B, Slots for common bolts.
C, Tee-slots for tee-head bolts,
nose, and having slot holes in which bolts are inserted for the pur-
pose of cramping pieces of work to its face. There are numerous
forms of these clampSj and common bolts also are used. The face-
plate may also serve to receive an intermediary, the angle-plate,
against which work may be bolted when its shape is such as to
render bolting directly to the plate inconvenient.
Jaw Chucks. — When a face-plate has fitted to it permanent dogs
or jaws it is termed a dog or jaw chuck (fig. 38). In the commonest
form the jaws are moved radially and independently, each by
its own screw, to grip work either externally or internally. In
some cases the dogs are loosely fitted to the holes in a plain face-
plate. In all these types the radial setting is tentative, that is,
A, Body,
a, Recess to receive face-plate.
B, Jaws or dogs.
C, Screws for operating jaws.
Fig. 38. — Independent Jaw Chuck.
b, Square heads of screws for
key.
c, Tee-grooves for bolts.
Fig. 39. — Scroll Chuck, ungeared.
A, Face-plate screwed to man-
drel nose.
B, Back of chuck screwed to
A.
C, Knurled chuck body with
scroll a on face.
Chuck face.
D,
Jaws in chuck face, having
sectional scroll teeth en-
gaging with scroll o, and
moved inwards or outwards
by the scroll when C is
turned.
Tommy or lever hole in C.
Piece of work outlined.
Fig. 40. — Combination Geared
Scroll Chuck.
A , Back plate ; a, recess for face-
plate.
B, Pinions.
C, Circular rack with scroll b on
face.
D, Chuck body.
E, Jaws fitting on intermediate
pieces c that engage with
the scroll b.
d, Screws for operating jaws
independently.
Fig. 41. — Spiral Geared Chuck,
concentric movement. (C.Taylor,
Birmingham.)
A, Back.
B, Body.
C, Spiral plate with teeth engag-
ing in jaws D.
E, Bevel pinions gearing with
teeth on back of C.
RECIPROCATING MACHINES]
TOOL
27
(fig. 39) or a circular rack with
pinions (fig. 40), turned with
a key which operates all the
jaws simultaneously inwards
or outwards. But as some
classes of jobs have to be
adjusted eccentrically, many
chucks are of the combination
type (fig. 40), capable of being
used independently or con-
centrically, hence termed uni-
versal chucks. The change
from one to the other simply
means throwing the rLng of
teeth out of or into engage-
ment with the pinions by
means of cams or equivalent
devices. Each type of chuck
occurs in a large range of
dimensions to suit lathes of all
centres, besides which every
lathe includes several chucks,
large and small, in its equip-
ment. The range of dia-
meters which can be taken
by any one chuck is limited,
though the jaws are made
with steps, in addition to the
range afforded by the ope-
rating screws. The " Taylor "
spiral chucks (fig. 41) differ
essentially from the scroll types in having the actuating threads set spirally
on the sloping interior of a cone. The result is that the outward pressure
of each jaw is received behind the body, because the spiral rises up at the
back. In the ordinary scroll chucks the pressure is taken only at the bottom
of each jaw, and the tendency to tilt and pull the teeth out of shape is very
noticeable. The spiral, moreover, enables a stronger form of tooth to be used,
together with a finer pitch of threads, so that the wearing area can be
increased.
The foregoing may be termed the standard chucks. But in addition there
are large numbers for dealing with special classes of work. Brass finishers
have several. Most of the hollow spindle lathes and automatics have draw-in
or push-out chucks, in which the jaws are operated simultaneously by the
conical bore of the encircling nose, so that their action is instantaneous and
self-centring. They are either operated by hand, as in fig. 31, or automatically,
as in fig. 33. There is also a large group used for drills and reamers — the drill
chucks employed in lathes as well as in drilling machines.
II. — Reciprocating Machine Tools
This is the only convenient head under which to group three great classes of
machine tools which possess the feature of reciprocation in common. It
includes the planing, shaping and slotting machines. The feature of reciproca-
tion is that the cutting tool is operative only in one direction ; that is, it cuts
during one stroke or movement and is idle during the return stroke. It is,
therefore, in precisely the same condition as a hand tool such as a chisel, a
carpenter's plane or a hand
saw. We shall return again
to this feature of an idle
stroke and discuss the devices
that exist to avoid it.
Planing Machines. — In the
standard planer for general
shop purposes (fig. 42) the
piece of work to be operated
on is attached to a horizontal tj
table moving to and fro on a
rigid bed, and passing under-
neath the fixed cutting tool.
The tool is gripped in a box
having certain necessary ad-
justments and movements, so
that the tool can be carried
or fed transversely across the
work, or at right angles with
the direction of its travel, to
take successive cuts, and also
downwards or in a vertical
direction. The tool-box is
carried on a cross-slide which
has capacity for several feet
of vertical adjustment on up-
right members to suit work
of varying depths. These up- j
rights or housings are bolted
to the sides of the bed, and
the whole framing is so rigidly
designed that no perceptible
tremor or yielding takes place
under the heaviest duty im-
posed by the stress of cutting.
be
C.-J .
28
TOOL
[RECIPROCATING MACHINES
Moreover, after the required adjustments have been made and the
machine started, the travel and the return of the work-table and
the feeding of the tool across the surface are performed by self-acting
mechanism actuated by the reciprocations of the table itself, the
table being driven from the belt pulleys.
To such a design there are objections, which, though their im-
portance has often been exaggerated, are yet real. First, the cross-
rail and housings make a rigid enclosure over the table, which
sometimes prevents the admission of a piece that is too large to
pass under the cross-rail or between the housings. Out of this
is. 1
i
Xvjii^^v^-v^L. ■—1
ii:i •:; ^>i?^
Fig. 43. — 20-in. Side Planing Machine. (G. Richards & Co., Ltd., Manchester.) "
A , Bed. G, Tool-box on travelling arm H, travelled by fast and loose
B, B, Feet. pulleys / for cutting, and by pulleys K for quick return.
C, C, Work tables adjustable vertically on the faces D, D, by L, Feed-rod with adjustable dogs a, a, for effecting reversals through
means of screws E, E, from handles F, F, through bevel the belt forks 6, 6.
gears. M, Brickwork pit to receive deep objects.
-c=$
Fig. 44. — 8-in. Shaping Machine. (C
A, Base.
B, Work-table, having vertical movement on carriage C, which has
horizontal movement along the face of A .
D, Screw for effecting vertical movement, by handle E, and bevel
gears.
F, Screw for operating longitudinal movement with feed by hand
or power.
G, Tool ram.
H, Tool-box.
a, Worm-gear for setting tool-holder at an ang*.
b, Crank handle spindle for operating ditto.
c, Handle for actuating down feed of tool.
unliffe & Croom, Ltd., Manchester.)
Driving cone pulley actuating pinion d, disk wheel e, with slotted
disk, and adjustable nut moving in the slot of the crank /,
which actuates the lever g, connected to the tool ram G, the
motion constituting the Whitworth quick return ; g is pivoted
to a block which is adjustable along a slot in G, and the
clamping of this block in the slot regulates the position of the
ram G, to suit the position of the work on the table.
Feed disk driven by small gears from cone pulley.
Pawl driven from disk through levers at various rates, and con-
trolling the amount of rotation of the feed screw F.
Conical mandrel for circular shaping, driven by worm and
wheel /.
RECIPROCATING MACHINES]
TOOL
29
objection has arisen a new design, the side planer (fig. 43), in which
the tool-box is carried by an arm movable along a fixed bed or base,
and overhanging the work, which is fastened to the side of the
base, or on angle brackets, or in a deep pit alongside. Here the
important difference is that the work is not traversed under the
tool as in the ordinary planer, but the tool moves over the work.
But an evil results, due to the overhang of the tool arm, which being
a cantilever supported at one end only is not so rigid when cutting
as the cross-rail of the ordinary machine, supported at both ends
on housings. The same idea is embodied in machines built in other
respects on the reciprocating table model. Sometimes one housing
is omitted, and the tool arm is carried on the other, being therefore
unsupported at one end. Sometimes a housing is made to be
removable at pleasure, to be temporarily taken away only when a
piece of work of unusual dimensions has to be fixed on the table.
Another objection to the common planer is this. It seems
unmechanical in this machine to reciprocate a heavy table and
piece of work which often weighs several tons, and let the tool
and its holder of a few hundredweights only remain stationary.
The mere reversal of the table absorbs much greater horse-power
there is no limitation whatever to the length of the work, since it
may extend to any distance beyond the base-plate.
Shaping Machines. — The shaping machine (fig. 44) does for com-
paratively small pieces that which the planer does for long ones.
It came later in time than the planer, being one of James Nasmyth's
inventions, and beyond the fact that it has a reciprocating non-
cutting return stroke it bears no resemblance to the older machine.
Its design is briefly as follows: The piece of work to be shaped is
attached to the top, or one of the vertical side faces, of a right-
angled bracket or brackets. These are carried upon the face of a
main standard and are adjustable thereon in horizontal and vertical
directions. In small machines the ram or reciprocating arm (see
fig. 44, G) slides in fixed guides on the top of the pillar, and the
necessary side traverse is imparted to the work table B. To the top
of the main standard, in one design, a carriage is fitted wifh hori-
zontal traverse to cover the whole breadth, within the capacity of the
machine, of any work to be operated on. In the largest machines
two standards support a long bed, on which the carriage, with its
ram, traverses past the work. These machines are frequently made
double-headed, that is carriages, rams and work tables are dupli-
Fic 45. — 12-in. Stroke Slotting Machine.
A, Main framing.
B, Driving cone.
C, D, Gears driven by cones.
E, Shaft of L.
F, Tool ram driven from shaft E through disk G and rod H, with
quick return mechanism D.
J, Counter-balance lever to ram.
than the actual work of cutting. Hence a strong case is often
stated for the abandonment of the common practice. But, on the
other hand, the centre of gravity of the moving table and work
lies low down, while when the cross-rail and housings with the cut-
ting tool are travelled and reversed, their centre of gravity is high,
and great precautions have to be taken to ensure steadiness of
movement. Several planers are made thus, but they are nearly
all of extremely massive type — the pit planers. The device is
seldom applied to those of small and medium dimensions.
' But there is a great group of planers in which the work is always
fixed, the tools travelling. These are the wall planers, vertical
planers or wall creepers, used chiefly by marine engine builders.
They are necessary, because many of the castings and forgings
are too massive to be put on the tables of the largest, standard
machines. They are therefore laid on the base-plate of the wall
planer, and the tool-box travels up and down a tall pillar bolted to
the wall or standing independently, and so makes vertical cutting
strokes. In some designs horizontal strokes are provided for, or
either vertical or horizontal as required. Here, as in the side planer,
(Greenwood & Batley, Ltd., Leeds.)
K, Flywheel.
L, Driving-disk.
M , N, Feed levers and shaft operated from disk, actuating linear
movements of slides 0, P, and circular movement of table
Q, through gears R.
S, Hand-feed motions to table.
T, Countershaft.
cated, and the operator can set one piece of work while the other
is being shaped. In all cases the movement of the reciprocating
arm, to the outer end of which the tool is attached, takes place in a
direction transversely to the direction of movement of the carriage,
and the tool receives no support beyond that which it receives from
the arm which overhangs the work. Hence the shaper labours
under the same disadvantages as the side planer — it cannot operate
over a great breadth. A shaper with a 24-in. stroke is one of large
capacity, 16 in. being an average limit. Although the non-cutting
stroke exists, as in the planer, the objection due to the mass of a '
reciprocating table does not exist, so that the problem does not
assume the same magnitude as in the planer. The weak point in
the shaper is the overhang of the arm, which renders it liable to
spring, and renders heavy cutting difficult. Recently a novel
design has been introduced to avoid this, the draw-cut shaper, in
which the cutting is done on the inward or return stroke, instead of
on the outward one.
Slotting Machines. — In the slotting machine (fig. 45) the cutting
takes place vertically and there is a lost return stroke. All the
3°
TOOL
[DRILLING MACHINES
necessary movements save the simple reciprocating stroke are im-
parted to the compound table on which the work is carried. These
include two linear movements at right angles with each other and
a circular motion capable of making a complete circle. Frequently
a tilting adjustment is included to permit of slotting at an angle.
The slotting machine has the disadvantage of an arm unsupported
beyond the guides in which it moves. But the compound movements
of the table permit of the production of shapes which cannot be done
on planers and shapers, as circular parts and circular arcs, in com-
bination with straight portions. Narrow key grooves in the bores
of wheels are also readily cut, the wheels lying on the horizontal
table, which would only be possible on planer and shaper by the use
of awkward angle brackets, and of specially projecting tools.
Quick return in planers is accomplished by having two distinct
sets of gearing — a slow set for cutting and a quick train for return,
each operated from the same group of driving pulleys. The return
travel is thus accomplished usually three, often four, times more
quickly than the forward rate; sometimes even higher rates are
arranged for. In the shaper
and slotter such acceleration
is not practicable, a rate of
two to one being about the
limit, and this is obtained not
by gears, but by the slotted
crank, the Whitworth return,
on shapers and slotters, or by
elliptical toothed wheels on
slotters. The small machines
are generally unprovided with
this acceleration.
The double-cutting device
seems at first sight the best
solution, and it is adopted on
a number of machines, though
still in a great minority. The
pioneer device of this kind,
the rotating tool-box of
Whitworth, simply turns the
tool round through an angle
of 180° at the termination of
each stroke, the movement
being self-acting. In some
later designs, instead of the
box being rotated to reverse
the tool, two tools are used
set back to back, and the one
that is not cutting is relieved
for the time being, that is
tilted to clear the work.
Neither of these tools will
plane up to a shoulder as will
the ordinary ones.
Allied Machines. — The re-
ciprocation of the tool or the
work, generally the former, is
adopted in several machines
besides the standard types
named. The plate-edge planer
is used by platers and boiler
makers. It is a side planer,
the plates being bolted to a
bed, and the tool traversing
and cutting on one or both
strokes. Provision is often
included for planing edges at
right angles. The key-seaters
are a special type, designed
mainly to remove the work of cutting key grooves in the bores
of wheels and pulleys from the slotting machine. The work is
fixed on a table and the keyway cutting tool is drawn downwards
through the bore, with several resulting practical advantages.
Many planing machines are portable so that they may be fixed
upon very massive work. Several gear-wheel cutting machines
embody the reciprocating tool.
III. — Drilling and Boring Machines
The strict distinction between the operations of drilling and
boring is that the first initiates a hole, while the second enlarges one
already existing. But the terms are used with some latitude. A
combined drilling and boring machine is one which has provision
for both functions. But when holes are of large dimensions the
drilling machine is useless because the proportions and gears are
unsuitable. A 6-in. drill is unusually large, but holes are bored up
to 30 ft. or more in diameter.
Types of Machines. — The distinction between machines with
vertical and horizontal spindles is not vital, but of convenience only.
The principal controlling element in design is the mass of the work,
which often determines whether it or the machine shall be adjusted
relatively to each other. Also the dimensions of a hole determine
the speed of the tools, and this controls the design of the driving
and feeding mechanism. Another important difference is that
between drilling or boring one or more holes simultaneously. With
few exceptions the tool rotates and the work is stationary. The
notable exceptions are the vertical boring lathes already mentioned.
Obviously the demands made upon drilling machines are nearly as
varied as those on lathes. There is little in common between the
machines which are serviceable for the odd jobs done in the general
shop and those which are required for the repetitive work of the
shops which handle specialities. Provision often has to be made
for drilling simultaneously several holes at certain centres or
holes at various angles or to definite depths, while the mass of
the spindles of the heavier machines renders counter-balancing
essential.
Bench Machines are the simplest and smallest of the group. They
are operated either by hand or by power. In the power machines
generally, except in the smallest, the drill is also fed downwards
by power, by means of toothed gears. The upper part of the drilling
•Fig. 46.
A, Base-plate.
B, Pillar.
C, Radial arm.
D, Spindle carriage.
E, Drill spindle.
F, Main driving cones driving vertical shaft G
through mitre-gears H.
J, Spur-wheels, driving from C to vertical shaft K.
L, Mitre-wheels, driving from K to horizontal
shaft M, having its bearings in the radial arm.
N, Nest of mitre-wheels driving the wheel spindle
E from M.
0, Feed-gears to drill spindle, actuated by hand-
wheel P or worm-gears Q.
Pillar Radial Drilling Machine, 5 ft. radius.
R, R, Feed cones driving from shaft if to worm-
shaft S, for self-acting feed of drill.
T, Change-speed gears.
V, Hand-wheel for racking carriage D along radial
arm C.
V, Clutch and lever for reversing direction of
rotation of spindle.
W, Worm-gear for turning pillar B.
d, Handle for turning worm.
X, Screw for adjusting the height of the radial
arm.
Y, Gears for actuating ditto from shaft C.
Z, Rod with handle for operating elevating gear.
spindle being threaded is turned by an encircling spur-wheel, operated
very slowly by a pinion and hand-wheel by the right hand of the
attendant, the movement being made independent of the rotation
of the spindle. A rack sleeve encircling the spindle is also common.
In the power machines gears are also used, but a belt on small cone
pulleys drives from the main cone shaft at variable speeds. From
three to four drilling and feeding speeds are provided for by the
respective cone pulleys. Work is held on or bolted to a circular
table, which may have provision for vertical adjustment to suit
pieces of work of different depths, and which can usually be swung
aside out of the way to permit of deep pieces of work being introduced,
resting on the floor or on blocking.
Wall Machines. — One group of these machines resembles the bench
machines in general design, but they are made to bolt to a wall
instead of on a bench. Their value lies in the facilities which they
afford for drilling large pieces of work lying on the floor o on block-
ing, which could not go on the tables of the bench machines. Some-
times a compound work-table is fastened to the floor beneath;
and several machines also are ranged in line, by means of which long
plates, angles, boilers or castings may be brought under the simul-
taneous action of the group of machines. Another type is the
radial arm machine, with or without a table beneath. In each case
DRILLING MACHINES]
TOOL
3*
an advantage gained is that a supporting pillar or standard is not
required, its place being taken by the wall.
Self-contained Pillar Machines include a large number having the
above-named feature in common. In the older and less valuable
types the framework is rigid, and the driving and feeding are by belt
cones. But the machines being mostly of larger capacities than those
just noted, back-gears similar to those of lathes are generally in-
troduced. The spindles also are usually counterbalanced. The
machine framing is bolted to a bed-plate. A circular work-table
may or may not be included. When it is, provision is made for
elevating the table by gears, and also for swinging it aside when deep
work has to be put on the base-plate.
Radial Arm Machines. — In these (fig. 46) the drilling mechanism
is carried on a radial arm which is pivoted to the pillar with the
object of moving the drill over the work, when the latter is too massive
to permit of convenient adjustment under the drill. The driving
takes place through shafts at right angles, from a horizontal shaft
carrying the cones and back-geared to a vertical one, thence to a
horizontal one along the radial arm, whence the vertical drilling
makers and platers. In others the spindles are adjustable in circles
of varying radii, as in those employed for drilling the bolt holes in
pipe flanges. In many of these the spindles are horizontal. Some
very special multiple-spindle machines have the spindles at different
angles, horizontal and vertical, or at angles.
Universal Machines are a particular form of the pillar type in
which the spindle is horizontal, moving with its carriage on a pillar
capable of traversing horizontally along a bed ; the carriage has ver-
tical adjustment on its pillar and so commands the whole of the face
of a large piece of work bolted to a low bed-plate adjacent to the
machine. The term " universal " signifies that the machine com-
bines provision for drilling, boring, tapping screws and inserting
screw studs, facing and in some cases milling. The power required
for boring is obtained by double and treble gears. These machines
are used largely in marine engine works, where very massive
castings and forgings must be operated on with their faces set
vertically.
Boring Machines, — Many machines are classified as suitable for
drilling and boring. That simply means that provision is made on
Fig. 47. — Lincoln Milling Machine.
A, Bed.
B, B, Legs.
C, Upright.
D, Spindle or arbor.
E, Headstock, carrying bearings for spindle D.
F, Tailstock, carrying point centre for tail end of spindle.
G, Hand-wheel for effecting adjustment in height of headstock,
through bevel-gears H and screw /.
K, Cross-bar connecting head- and tail-stocks, and ensuring
equal vertical adjustment of the spindle bearings from the
screw /.
spindle is driven. The latter has its bearings in a carriage which
can be traversed along the arm for adjustment of radius. The
spindle is counterbalanced. Hand as well as power adjustments
are included. In the work-tables of radial and rigid machines
there is a great diversity, so that work can be set on top, or at the
sides, or at an angle, or on compound tables, so covering all the
requirements of practice.
Sensitive Machines have developed greatly and have superseded
many of the older, slower designs. The occasion for their use lies
in the drilling of small holes, ranging up to about an inch in diameter.
They are belt-driven, without back-gears, and usually without
bevel-gears to change the direction of motion. The feed is by lever
moving a rack sleeve. A slender pillar with a foot supports the
entire mechanism, and the work-table, with a range of vertical
adjustment.
Multiple Spindle Machines. — Many of the sensitive machines
are fitted with two, three or more spindles operated in unison with
a belt common to all. In other machines the multiple spindles are
capable of adjustment for centres, as in the machines used by boiler
(John Holroyd & Co., Ltd., Milnrow.j
L, Speed cones for driving spindle, through pinion M and wheel
N.
0, Frame, carrying the bearings for the cone pulley L, and pivoted
to the bed at a, and to the headstock E. This device keeps
the gears M and N in engagement in all variations in the
height of the spindle D.
P, Q, Cones for driving the table R through worm-gears S, T, and
spurs U, V, to the table screw.
W , Stop for automatic knock-off to feed.
X, Hand-wheel for turning the same screw through worm-gears
Y, Z.
a drilling machine for boring holes of moderate size, say up to 8 or
10 in., by double and treble back-gears. But the real boring machine
is of a different type. In the horizontal machines a splined bar
actuated by suitable gears carries a boring head which holds the
cutters, which head is both rotated with, and traversed or fed along
the bar. The work to be bored is fixed on a table which has pro-
vision for vertical adjustment to suit work of different dimensions.
-The boring-bar is supported at both ends. In the case of the
largest work the boring-bar is preferably set with its axis vertically,
and the framing of the machine is arch-like. The bar is carried in
a bearing at the crown of the arch and driven and fed there by suit-
able gears, while the other end of the bar rotates in the table which
forms the base of the machine. Some boring machines for small
engine cylinders and pump barrels have no bar proper, but a long
boring spindle carrying cutters at the further end is supported along
its entire length in a long stiff boss projecting from the headstock
of the machine — the snout machine. The work is bolted on a carriage
which slides along a bed similar to a lathe bed. Many of these
machines have two bars for boring two cylinders simultaneously.
32
TOOL
[MILLING MACHINES
IV. — Milling Machines
In milling machines rotary saw-like cutters are employed. To a
certain extent these and some gear-cutting machines overlap because
they have points in common. Many gear-wheel teeth are produced
by rotary cutters on milling machines. In many machines designed
for gear cutting only, rotary cutters alone are used. For this reason
the two classes of machines are conveniently and naturally grouped
together, notwithstanding that a large and increasing group of gear-
cutting machines operate with reciprocating tools.
The French engineer, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), is
credited with having made the first milling cutter. The first very
crude milling machine was made in 1818 at a gun factory in Connecti-
cut. To-day the practice of milling ranks as of equal economic value
with that of any other department of the machine shop, and the
varieties of milling machines made are as highly differentiated as are
those of any other group. An apparent incongruity which is rather
striking is the relative disproportion between the mass of these
machines and the small dimensions of the cutters. The failures of
many of the early machines were largely due to a lack of appreciation
of the intensity of the stresses involved in milling. A single-edged
cutting tool has generally a very narrow edge in operation. Milling
cutters are as a rule very wide by comparison, and several teeth in
deep cuts are often in simultaneous operation. The result is that
the machine spindle and the arbor or tool mandrel are subjected to
severe stress, the cutter tends to spring away from the surface being
cut, and if the framings are of light proportions they vibrate, and in-
accuracy and chatter result. Even with the very stiff machines now
made it is not possible to produce such accurate results on wide sur-
faces as with the planer using a narrow-edged tool. Because
of this great resistance and stress, cutters of over about
an inch in width are always made with the teeth arranged
spirally, and wide cutters which are intended for roughing
down to compete with the planer always have either
inserted cutters or staggered teeth. Hence the rotary cutter
type of machine has not been able to displace the planing
machine in wide work when great accuracy is essential. Its place
lies in other spheres, in some of which its position is unassailable.
Nearly all pieces of small and medium dimensions are machined as
well by milling as by single-edged tools. All pieces which have more
than one face to be operated on are done better in the milling machine
than elsewhere. All pieces which have profiled outlines involving
combinations of curves and plane faces can generally only be pro-
duced economically by milling. Nearly all work that involves
equal divisions, or pitchings, as in the manufacture of the cutters
themselves, or spiral cutting, or the teeth of gear-wheels when pro-
duced by rotary cutters, must be done in milling machines. Beyond
these a large quantity of work lies on the border-line, where the choice
between milling and planing, shaping, slotting, &c, is a matter for
individual judgment and experience. It is a matter for some sur-
prise that round the little milling cutter so many designs of machines
have been built, varying from each other in the position of the tool
spindles, in their number, and in the means adopted for actuating
them and the tables which carry the work.
A very early type of milling machine, which remains extremely
popular, was the Lincoln. It was designed, as were all the early
machines, for the small arms factories in the United States. The
necessity for all the similar parts of pistols and rifles being inter-
changeable, has had the paramount influence in the development
of the milling machine. In the Lincoln machine as now made
(fig. 47) the work is attached to a table, or to a vice on the table,
which has horizontal and cross traverse movements on a bed, but
no capacity for vertical adjustment. The cutter is held and rotated
on an arbor driven from a headstock pulley, and supported on a tail-
stock centre at the other end, with capacity for a good range of ver-
tical adjustment. This is necessary both to admit pieces of work
of different depths or thicknesses between the table and the cutter,
and to regulate the depth of cutting (vertical feed). Around this
general design numerous machines small and large, with many
variations in detail, are built. But the essential feature is the ver-
tical movement of the spindle and cutter, the support of the arbor
(cutter spindle) at both ends, and the rigidity afforded by the bed
which supports head- and tail-stock and table.
The pillar and knee machines form another group which divides
favour about equally with the Lincoln, the design being nearly of
an opposite character. The vertical movements for setting and
feed are imparted to the work, which in this case is carried on a
bracket or knee that slides on the face of the pillar which supports
the headstock. Travelling and transverse movements are imparted
to the table slides. The cutter arbor may or may not be supported
away from the headstock by an arched overhanging arm. None of
these machines is of large dimensions. They are made in two leading
designs — the plain and the universal. The first embodies rectangular
relations only, the second is a marvellous instrument both in
its range of movements and fine degree of precision. The first
machine of this kind was exhibited at Paris in 1867. The design
permits the cutting of spiral grooves, the angle of which is embodied
in the adjustment of a swivelling table and of a headstock thereon
(universal or spiral head). The latter embodies change-gears like
a screw-cutting lathe and worm-gear for turning the head, in com-
bination with an index or dividing plate having several circles of
holes, which by the insertion of an index peg permit of the work
spindle being locked during a cut. The combinations possible with
the division plate and worm-gear number hundreds. The head also
has angular adjustments in the vertical direction, so that tapered
work can be done as well as parallel. The result is that there is
nothing in the range of spiral or parallel milling, or tapered work or
spur or bevel-gear cutting, or cutter making, that cannot be done
on this type of machine, and the accuracy of the results of equal
divisions of pitch and angle of spiral do not depend on the human
element, but are embodied in the mechanism.
Fig. 48. — Vertical Spindle Milling Machine. (James
Archdale & Co., Ltd.)
A, Main framing.
B, Knee.
C, Spindle, having its vertical position capable of adjustment by
the sliding of D on A.
E, Driving cone, belt driving over guide pulleys F to spindle
pulley G.
H, Enclosed gears for driving spindle by back gear.
J, Hand-wheel for adjusting spindle vertically.
K, K, Pulleys over which spindle is counterbalanced.
L, Feed pulley, driven from counter shaft.
M, Vertical feed shaft, driven from L through mitre-gears.
N, Change gear box.
0, Horizontal feed shaft, operating longitudinal and transverse
feed of table through spiral and spur-gears.
P, P, Handles for operating changes in feed speeds, nine in number.
<2, Handle for reversing direction of motion of table R.
S, Hand-wheel for longitudinal movement of table.
T, Hand- wheel for effecting cross adjustments.
V, Spiral gears indicated for effecting self-acting rotation of
circular table W.
X, Hand-wheel for rotation of table.
Y, Hand-wheel for vertical movements of knee B on screw Z.
Machines with vertical spindles (fig. 48) form another great group,
the general construction of which resembles that either of the com-
mon drilling machine or of the slotting machine. In many cases the
horizontal position is preferable for tooling, in others the vertical,
but often the matter is indifferent. For general purposes, the heavier
class of work excepted, the vertical is more convenient. But apart
from the fitting of a special brace to the lower end of the spindle
which carries the cutter, the spindle is unsupported there and is
thus liable to spring. But a brace can only be used with a milling
cutter that operates by its edges, while one advantage of the vertical
spindle machine is that it permits of the use of end or face cutters.
One of the greatest advantages incidental to the vertical position
of the spindle is that it permits of profile milling being done. One
of the most tedious operations in the machine shop is the production
of outlines which are not those of the regular geometric figures,
as rectangles and circles, or combinations of the same. There is
GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES]
TOOL
33
only one way in which irregular forms can be produced cheaply
and interchangeably, and that is by controlling the movements of
the tool "vith an object of similar shape termed a "form" or
" former," as in the well-known copying lathes, in the cam grinding
machine, and in the forming adjuncts fitted to vertical spindle milling
machines, so converting those into profiling machines. The prin-
ciple and its application are alike simple. An object (the form) is
made in hardened steel, having the same outlines as the object to be
milled, and the slide which carries the cutter spindle has a hardened
former pin or roller, which is pulled hard against the edges of
the form by a suspended weight, so causing the tool to move and cut
in the same path and in the same plane around the edges of the work.
Here the milling machine holds a paramount place. No matter
how many curves and straight portions may be combined in a piece,
the machine reproduces them all faultlessly, and a hundred or a
thousand others all precisely alike without any tentative corrections.
Piano-millers, also termed slabbing machines, form a group that
grows in value and in mass and capacity. They are a comparatively
late development, becoming the chief rivals to the planing machines,
for all the early milling was of a very light character. In general
outlines the piano-millers closely resemble the planing machines,
having bed, table, housings and cross-rail. The latter in the piano-
miller carries the bearings for the cutter spindle or spindles under
which the work travels and reciprocates. These spindles are ver-
tical, but in some machines horizontal ones are fitted also, as in
planers, so that three faces at right or other angles can be operated
on simultaneously. The slabbing operations of the piano-millers do
not indicate the full or even the principal utilities of these machines.
To understand these it must be remembered that the cross-sections
of very many parts which have to be tooled do not lie in single planes
merely, but in combinations of plane surfaces, horizontal, vertical
or angular. In working these on the planing machine separate
settings of tools are required, and often successive settings. But
milling cutters are built up in " gangs " to deal with such cases, and
in this way the entire width of profile is milled at once. Horizontal
faces, and vertical and angular edges and grooves, are tooled simul-
taneously, with much economy in time, and the cutter profile will
be accurately reproduced on numbers of separate pieces. Allied
to the piano-millers are the rotary planers. They derive their name
from the design of the cutters. An iron disk is pierced with holes
for the insertion of a large number of separate cutters, which by the
rotation of the disk produce plane surfaces. These are milling
cutters, though the tools are single-edged ones, hence termed
" inserted tooth mills." These are used on other machines besides
the rotary planers, but the latter are_ massive machines built on
the planer model, with but one housing or upright to carry the
carriage of the cutter spindle. These machines, varied considerably
in design, do good service on a class of work in which a very high
degree of accuracy is not essential, as column flanges, ends of
girders, feet of castings, and such like.
V. — Gear-cutting Machines
The practice of cutting the teeth of gear-wheels has grown but
slowly. In the gears used by engineers, those of large dimensions
are numerous, and the cost of cutting these is often prohibitive,
though it is unnecessary in numbers of mechanisms for which
cast wheels are as suitable as the more accurately cut ones. The
smallest gears for machines of precision have long been produced
by cutting, but of late years the practice has been extending to
include those of medium and large dimensions, a movement which
has been largely favoured by the growth of electric driving, the
high speeds of which make great demands on reduction and trans-
mission gears. Several new types of gear-cutting machines have
been designed, and specialization is still growing, until the older
machines, which would, after a fashion, cut all forms of gears,
are being ousted from modern establishments.
The teeth of gear-wheels are produced either by rotary milling
cutters or by single-edged tools (fig. 49). The advantage of the
first is that the cutter used has the same sectional form as the inter-
tooth space, so that the act of tooth cutting imparts the shapes
without assistance from external mechanism. But this holds good
only in regard to spur-wheel teeth, that is, those in which the teeth
lie parallel with the axis of the wheel. The teeth of bevel-wheels,
though often produced by rotary cutters, can never be formed
absolutely correctly, simply because a cutter of unalterable section
is employed to form the shapes which are constantly changing
in dimensions along the length of the teeth (the bevel-wheel being
a frustum of a cone). Hence, though fair working teeth are ob-
tained in this way, they result from the practice of varying the
relative angles of the cutters and wheel and removing the material
in several successive operations or traverses, often followed by a
little correction with the file. Although this practice is still commonly
followed in bevel-wheels of small dimensions, and was at one time
the only method available, the practice has been changing in favour
of shaping the teeth by a process of planing with a single-edged
reciprocating tool. As, however, such a tool embodies no formative
section as do the milling cutters, either it or the wheel blank, or
both, have to be coerced and controlled by mechanism outside the
tool itself. Around this method a number of very ingenious
XXVTL 2
machines have been designed, which may be broadly classed under
two great groups — the form and the generating types.
In the form machines a pattern tooth or form-tooth is prepared
in hardened steel, usually three times as large as the actual teeth
to be cut, and the movement of the mechanism which carries the
wheel blank is coerced by this form, so that the tool, reciprocated
by its bar, produces the same shape on the reduced dimensions of
the wheel teeth. The generating machines use no pattern tooth,
but the principles of the tooth formation are embodied in the mechan-
ism itself. These are very interesting designs, because they not
only shape the teeth without a pattern tooth, but their movements
are automatically controlled. A large number of these have been
brought out in recent years, their growth being due to the demand
for accurate gears for motor cars, for electric driving, and for
general high-class engineers' work. These are so specialized that
they can only cut the one class of gear for which they are designed —
the bevel-wheels, and these in only a moderate range of dimensions
on a single machine of a given size. The principal bevel-gear
cutting machines using forms or formers, are the Greenwood &
Batley, Le Progres Industriel, the Bouhey (cuts helical teeth),
the Oerlikon, which includes two types, the single and double
cutting tools, the Gleason and the Rice. Generating machines
include the Bilgram (the oldest), the Robey-Smith, the Monneret,
the Warren, the Beale and the Dubosc.
Fig. 49. — Gear Cutting.
A, Rotary milling cutter pro- D, Action of " Fellows " cutter,
ducing tooth space. planing teeth.
B, Planer tool operating on tooth E, Shape of " Fellows " cutter.
flank. F, Hobbing cutter.
C, Planer form-tool finishing G, Tapered hob beginning worm-
tooth space. wheel.
H, Ditto finishing.
As the difficulties of cutting bevel-wheels with rotary cutters,
consequent on change of section of the teeth, do not occur in spur-
gears, there are no examples of form machines for spur-wheel
cutting, and only one generating planing type of machine, the
Fellows, which produces involute teeth by a hardened steel-cutting
pinion, which shapes wheels having any number of teeth of the
same pitch, the cutter and blank being partly rotated between each
cut as they roll when in engagement.
The worm-gears appropriate a different group of machines, the
demands on which have become more exacting since the growth
of electric driving has brought these gears into a position of greater
importance than they ever occupied before. With this growth
the demand for nothing less than perfect gears has developed.
A perfect gear is one in which the teeth of the worm-wheel are
envelopes of the worm or screw, and this form can only be produced
in practice in one way — by using a cutter that is practically a
serrated worm (a hob), which cuts its way into the wheel just as
an actual worm might be supposed to mould the teeth of a wheel
made of a plastic substance. To accomplish this the relative move-
ments of the hob and the wheel blank are arranged to be precisely
those of the working worm and wheel. Very few such machines
are made. A practical compromise is effected by causing the hob
34
TOOL
[GRINDING MACHINES
both to drive and cut the blank in an ordinary machine. When
worms are not produced by these methods the envelope cannot be
obtained, but each tooth space is cut by an involute milling cutter
set at the angle of thread in a universal machine, or else in one of
the general gear-cutting machines used for spur, bevel and worm
gears, and only capable of yielding really accurate results in the
case of spur-wheels.
The previous remarks relate only to the sectional forms of the
teeth. But their pitch or distance from centre to centre requires
dividing mechanism. This includes a main dividing or worm-
wheel, a worm in conjunction with change gears, and a division
plate for setting and locking the mechanism. The plate may have
four divisions only to receive the locking lever or it may be drilled
with a large number of holes in circles for an index peg. The
first is adopted in the regular gear-cutters, the second on the
universal milling machines which are used also for gear-cutting.
In the largest number of machines this pitching has to be done by
an attendant as often as one tooth is completed. But in a good
number of recent machines the pitching is effected by the move-
ments of the machine itself without human intervention. With
spur-wheels the cutting proceeds until the wheel is complete, when
the machine is often made to ring a bell to call attention to the
fact. But in bevel-wheels only one side of the teeth all the way
round can be done; the attendant must then effect the necessary
settings for the other side, after which the pitchings are automatic.
As a general rule only one tooth is being operated on at one time.
But economy is studied in spur-gears by setting several similar
wheels in line on a mandrel and cutting through a single tooth
of the series at one traverse of the tool. In toothed racks the
same device is adopted. Again, there are cases in which cutters
are made to operate simultaneously on two, three or more adjacent
teeth.
Recently a generating machine of novel design has been manu-
factured, the spur-wheel hobbing machine. In appearance the
hob resembles that employed for cutting worm-gears, but it also
generates the teeth of spur and spiral gears. The hob is a worm
cut to form teeth, backed off and hardened. The section of the
worm thread is that of a rack. Though it will cut worm-wheels,
spiral-wheels or spur-wheels equally correctly, the method of pre-
sentation varies. When cutting worm-wheels it is fed inwards per-
pendicularly to the blank; when cutting spirals it is set-at a suitable
angle and fed across the face of the blank. The angle of the worm
thread in the hob being about 25°, it has to be set by that amount
out of parallel with the plane of the gear to be cut. It is then fed
down the face of the wheel blank, which Is rotated so as to syn-
chronize with the rotation of the worm. This is effected through
change gears, which are altered for wheels having different numbers
of teeth. The advantage is that of the hob over single cutters;
one hob serves for all wheels of the same pitch, and each wheel
is cut absolutely correct. While using a set of single cutters many
wheels must have their teeth only approximately correct.
VI. — Grinding Machines
The practice of finishing metallic surfaces by grinding, though
very old, is nevertheless with regard to its rivalry with the work
of the ordinary machine tools a development of the last part of the
19th century. From being a non-precision method, grinding has
become the most perfect device for producing accurate results
measured precisely within thousandths of an inch. It would be
rather difficult to mention any class of machine-shop work which
is not now done by the grinding wheel. The most recent develop-
ments are grinding out engine cylinders and grinding the lips of
twist drills by automatic movements, the drills rotating constantly.
There are five very broad divisions under which grinding machines
may be classified, but the individual, well-defined groups or types
might number a hundred. The main divisions are: (1) Machines
for dealing with plane surfaces; (2) machines for plain cylindrical
work, external and internal; (3) the universals, which embody
movements rendering them capable of angular setting; (4) the
tool grinders; and (5) the specialized machines.' Most of these
might be again classed under two heads, the non-precision and the
precision types. The difference between these two classes is that
the first does not embody provision for measuring the amount of
material removed, while the second does. This distinction is a
most important one.
The underlying resemblances and the differences in the main
designs of the groups of machines just now noted will be better
understood if the essential conditions of grinding as a correc-
tive process are grasped. The cardinal point is that accurate
results are produced by wheels that are themselves being abraded
constantly. That is not the case in steel cutting tools, or at least
in but an infinitesimal degree. A steel tool will retain its edge for
several hours (often for days) without the need for regrinding,
but the particles of abrasive in an emery or other grinding wheel
are being incessantly torn out and removed. A wheel in traversing
along a shaft say of 3 ft. in length is smaller in diameter at the
termination than at the beginning of the traverse, and therefore
the shaft must be theoretically larger at one end than the other.
Shafts, nevertheless, are ground parallel. The explanation is, and
it lies at the basis of emery grinding, that the feed or amount
removed at a single traverse is extremely minute, say a thousandth
or half a thousandth of an inch. The minuteness of the feed
receives compensation in the repetition and rapidity of the traverse.
The wear of the wheel is reduced to a minimum and true work
is produced.
From this fact of the wear of grinding wheels two important
results follow. One is that a traverse or lateral movement must
always take place between the wheel and the piece of work being
ground. This is necessary in order to prevent a mutual grooving
action between the wheel and work. The other is that it is essential
to provide a large range in quality of wheels, graded according to
coarseness and fineness, of hardness and softness of emery to suit
all the different metals and alloys. Actually about sixty grades
are manufactured, but about a dozen will generally cover average
shop practice. With such a choice of wheels the softest brass as
well as the hardest tempered steel or case-hardened glass-like
surfaces that could not possibly be cut in lathe or planer, can be
ground with extreme accuracy.
Fig. 50. — Universal Grinding Machine, 7 in. centres; 3 ft. 6 in.
between centres. (H. W. Ward & Co., Ltd., Birmingham.)
A, Base or body, with waste
water tray round top edge,
and interior fitted as cup-
boards, with shelves and
doors.
B, Sliding table.
C, Swivel table.
D, Grinding wheel.
E, Wheel guard.
F, Wheel headstock swivelling
in a horizontal plane, and
having the base graduated
into degrees for angular
setting.
G, Slide carrying headstock.
H, Hand-wheel for traversing
table.
J, Headstock for carrying and
driving work, used for
chuck work or dead centre
work ; the base is graduated
into degrees.
a, Dogs, which regulate auto-
matic reversals. An internal
grinding fixture, not shown,
is fitted to wheel head.
L, Countershaft pulley driving to
wheel pulley.
M , Pulley driving to cones.
N, Pulley driving to work head-
stock pulley.
0, Belt from line shaft.
P, Water pipe from pump.
Q, Water guards above table.
Plane surfacing machines in many cases resemble in general
outlines the well-known planing machine and the vertical boring
mill. The wheels traverse across the work, and they are fed
vertically to precise fractional dimensions. They fill a large place
in finishing plane surfaces, broad and narrow alike, and have be-
come rivals to the planing and milling machines doing a similar
class of work. For hardened surfaces they have no rival.
Cylindrical grinders include many subdivisions to embrace
external and internal surfaces, either parallel or tapered, small or
GRINDING MACHINES]
TOOL
35
large. In their highest development they fulfil what are termed
" universal " functions (fig. 50), that is, they are capable of grinding
both external and internal cylinders, plane faces, tapers, both of
low and high angle, and the teeth of various kinds of tools and
cutters. These machines occur in two broad types. In one the
axis of the revolving wheel is traversed past the work, which
revolves but is not traversed. In the other the reverse occurs,
the work traversing and the axis of the wheel with its bearings
remaining stationary. Equally satisfactory results are obtained
by each.
In all external cylindrical grinding, when the work can be rotated,
the piece being ground rotates in an opposite direction to the
rotation of the wheel (fig. 51, A). In all small pieces ground
internally the same procedure is adopted (fig. 51, B). Incidentally,
^■-\^>ly c
Fig. 51.
A, External cylindrical grinding. B, Internal ditto. C, External
grinding when the work is fixed. D, Internal ditto.
mention should be made of the fineness of the fitting required and
attained in the construction of the spindles which carry the wheels
for internal grinding. The perfection of fitting and of the means
of adjustment for eliminating the effects of wear in the ordinary
spindles for external and internal grinding is remarkable. The
spindles for internal work have to revolve at rates ranging from about
6000 to 30,000 times ,in a minute, yet run so truly that the holes
ground do not depart from accuracy by more than say ^^j to xsJtiTT
of an inch. Yet so long as the work can be revolved no special
complication of mechanism is required to ensure good results.
The revolution of the wheel and the work is mutually helpful. The
real difficulties arise when the work, on account of its mass or awk-
wardness of shape, cannot be revolved. The principle embodied
in machines designed to deal satisfactorily with such cases, though
much diversified in detail, is the application of the planet device to
the grinding wheels. That is, the wheel spindle rotating at a high
speed, 6000 or 7000 revolutions per minute, is simultaneously
carried round in a circular path, so that its axis makes about 25
or 30 revolutions per minute (fig. 51, C and D). The diameter of
the path is capable of adjustment with minute precision within
wide limits to suit bores of different diameters. The periphery of
the grinding wheel which lies farthest from its axis of revolution
sweeps round in a path the diameter of which equals that of the
bore to be ground. These machines are now used largely for
grinding out the cylinders of gas and petrol engines, valve seatings,
the bushed holes of coupling rods, and similar classes of work.
Many of them have their spindles set horizontally, others vertically.
Allied to these are a relatively small but important group of
machines used for grinding the slot links of the slide-valve gear
of locomotive and other engines. The slot is mounted on a pivoted
bar adjusted to the same radius as the slot to be ground, and the
slot is moved relatively to the wheel, so producing the required
curves.
In another direction much development has taken place in the
practice of grinding. The increasing use of the milling cutter has
Fig. 52.
A, Grinding front edges of milling cutter. B, Grinding side
edges of milling cutter; a, a, Tooth rests. C, Grinding face of
formed mill.
been the occasion for the growth and high specialization of the cutter
grinding machines. It is essential to the efficiency of such cutters
that regrinding shall be done without drawing the temper, and this
can only be effected by the use of an abrasive. In the early days
of their use the temper had to be drawn to permit of filing and
rehardening effected with its inevitable distortion.
Cutter grinding machines must possess universality of movements
to deal with the numerous shapes in which milling cutters are made;
hence they often resemble in general outlines the universal grinding
machines. But as a rule they are built on lighter models, and with
a -mailer range of movements, because the dimensions of cutters are
generally much smaller than those of the ordinary run of engineers'
work which has to be ground. Frequently a single pillar or standard
suffices to carry the mechanism. In an ordinary universal tool
grinder all the teeth of any form of cutter can be ground precisely
alike (fig. 52) excepting those having irregular profiled outlines, for
which a special machine, or an extra attachment to an ordinary
machine, is necessary. But little of this is done, because in such
cases, and in many others, the faces of the teeth are ground instead
of the edge. This idea, due to the firm of Brown & Sharpe, may
seem a trifle, but nevertheless to it the credit is largely due for the
economies of cutter grinding. The principle is that in the " formed
cutter," as it is termed, the profiles of the teeth are not struck from
the axis of revolution, but from another centre (fig. 20) ; grinding
the tooth faces, therefore, has no effect on the shapes of the profiles,
but only lessens the tooth thicknesses. Designed originally for
the cutters for the teeth of gear-wheels, it has long been applied
to profiles which involve combinations of curves. The pitching
of the teeth is effected by a strip of metal, or tooth rest a (fig. 52),
on which each successive tooth rests and is coerced during the
grinding. If teeth are of special form the traverse movement of
a spiral tooth along the rest ensures the required movement.
Besides the cutter grinders used for milling cutters, reamers and
screwing taps, there are two other groups of tool grinders, one for
twist drills only and the other for the single-edged tools used in
lathe, planer, shaper and other machines. Both these in their best
forms are of recent development. The machines used for grinding
twist drills embody numerous designs. Hand grinding is practically
abandoned, the reason being that a very minute departure from
symmetry on the two cutting lips of the drill results inevitably in
the production of inaccurate holes. It is essential that the two
lips be alike in regard to length, angle and clearance, and these are
embodied in the mechanism of the grinding machines. But formerly
in all these the drill holder had to be moved by hand around its
pivot, and one lip ground at a time There are now some very
beautiful machines of German manufacture in which the necessary
movements are all automatic, derived from the continuous rotation
of a belt pulley The drill rotates constantly, and small amounts
are ground off each lip in turn until the grinding is finished. The
other group for grinding single-edged tools is a very small one.
The correct angles for grinding are embodied in the setting of the
machine, with the great advantage that any number of similar tools
can be ground all alike without skilled attendance.
Lying outside these broad types of machines there is a large and
growing number designed fof special service. The knife-grinding
group for sharpening the planer knives used in wood-working
machinery is a large one. Another is that for gulleting or deepening
the teeth of circular saws as they wear. Another is designed for
grinding the cups and cones for the ball races of cycle wheels, and
another for grinding the hardened steel balls employed in ball
bearings.
B C O £ F 6
Fig. 53. — Typical Grinding Wheels.
A , Common disk held on spindle with washers and nuts.
B, Thin disk.
C, Flanged disk for grinding to shoulders.
Z>, Bevelled disk for cutter grinding.
E, F, Cupped and dished wheels for cutter grinding.
G, Cup wheel for grinding on face a; diameter remains constant.
Emery grinding is dependent for much of its success on a plentiful
supply of water. Dry grinding, which was the original practice,
is hardly employed now. The early difficulties of wet grinding were
due to the want of a cementing material which would not soften
under the action of water. Now wheels will run constantly without
damage by water, and they are so porous that water will filter through
them. Improvements in the manufacture of wheels, and the
increased use of water, have concurred to render possible heavier,
and more rapid grinding without risk of distortion due to heating
effects. In the best modern machines the provisions for water
supply_ are a study in themselves, including a centrifugal pump, a
tank, jointed piping, spraying tube, guards to protect the bearings
and slides from damage, and trays to receive the waste water and
conduct it back to the tank.
There are two points of view from which the modern practice
pi grinding is now regarded — one as a corrective, the other as a
36
TOOL
[SAWING MACHINES
formative process. The first is the older and is still by far the most ;
important. The second is a later ideal towards which design and
practice have been extending. As yet
grinding cannot compete with the work
of the single-edged tools and milling cut-
ters when large quantities of mateiial
have to be removed. Just as some
( — 1 fja--»aKN' — r ~\ leading firms have been designing
J V Jl stiffer machines having fuller lubri-
*— WAWK* "i~T cation with a view to increase the duty
of grinding wheels, the advent of the
high-speed steels has given a new lease
of life to the single-edged cutting tools.
The rivalry now lies not with the tools
of carbon temper steel, but with high-
speed varieties. But as a corrective
process grinding never occupied so im-
portant a position as it does to-day,
and its utility continues to extend.
The commoner forms in which grind-
ing wheels are made are shown in fig. 53.
These are varied largely in dimensions,
from tiny cylindrical rollers a fraction
of an inch in diameter for hole grind-
ing, to big wheels of 3 ft. or more
in diameter. Safety mountings, two
examples of which are shown in fig. 54,
embody means of retaining the broken
pieces of a wheel in case it bursts.
■Sand-blast. — The well-known erosive
action of sand when driven against
rocks and stones by the wind is utilized
Fig. 5 4.-Safety Devices, industrially in the sand-blastapparatus,
4, Grinding wheel, with the invention of B. C. Tilghman. The
coned washer to retain sand . ls propelled by a current of steam
broken pieces in case or air, .an<f being delivered through a
of fracture nozzle is directed against the surface of
B, Cup wheel with encircling the ^ ork - cuttin S * away by the action
ring, moved backwards ° f * e ™onnous number of grains
as the wheel face wears, stnkmg the face, each removing a very
minute quantity of material. I he
fiction is very gentle, and may be modified
by varying the class of sand and its velocity.
Other materials, such as emery, chilled iron
globules, &c, are employed for certain classes
of work. In some instances the powder is
used dry, in others it is mixed with water,
being then in the condition of fluid mud. The
plant includes an air-compressing engine, an
air reservoir and the blast nozzle through which the air passes and
propels the sand in the form of a jet. The pressures range from
8 lb up to about 60 lb per sq. in., depending on the class of work
which is done.
The peculiar advantage of the sandblast lies in its adaptability to
the working of irregular surfaces, which could not be touched by any
other class of grinding. The blast penetrates hollows and recesses,
and acts over an entire surface. There are many classes of
operation done with the sand-blast, including cleaning, frosting,
ornamentation, engraving and sharpening. In engineers works
a large amount of cleaning is effected upon castings, forgings, sheets
and other products, either preparatory to machining or to painting,
enamelling, tinning, galvanizing or plating. Cycle frames are
cleaned with the sand-blast after brazing. The teeth of files are
sharpened by directing a stream of sand and water against their
backs, with the result that the burr thrown up by the chisel when
cutting is obliterated, and a strong form of tooth is produced. Worn
files may also be sharpened up to equal new ones by sand-blasting
them. Frosting glass is another useful application of the sand-blast,
and by attaching suitable patterns or designs to the surface the sand
may be caused to work ornamental figurings. It is a peculiar circum-
stance that the sand has little effect upon soft and yielding substances
in comparison with the abrasion it produces on hard surfaces, so
that the pattern will remain undamaged, while the glass or other
object beneath is frosted where the sand reaches it, through the
openings. Not only can designs be worked on glass, or cut in stone,
but perforations may be made in glass, &c, by the continued action
of the sand, without any risk of fracture occurring. Much sand-
blasting is performed inside closed chambers, having panes through
which the workman watches the progress of the operation. But
when the blast must be used in the open, protection is necessary and
is afforded to the operator by a special helmet, which keeps out the
flying dust and gives a supply of pure air through a tube in a
similar fashion to the diver's helmet.
VII.— Sawing Machines
Metal-sawing machines are employed extensively in engineering
works for cutting off bars, shafts, rails, girders and risers on _Steel
castings, and for getting out curved pieces which would be difficult
and expensive to slot. There are three classes of these saws, circular,
band and reciprocating. The first named are used for straight-
> forward work, operating at
right or other angles, the
second for straight cuts and
also for curves which can-
not be treated with circular
saws, and the third for small
pieces. The circular saws em-
body a stiff spindle, carrying
the saw disk and driven by
gearing. This spindle may
be mounted in a sliding
bearing to carry it past the
work held on a fixed table,
or the spindle may be sta-
tionary and the work be
moved along past the saw.
The method of feeding should
be sensitive, so that it will
" give " and prevent damage
A,
B,
C,
D,
E,
Saw blade.
Spindle.
Sliding spindle carriage.
Driving pulleys.
First pinion, connecting through train of gears to wheel F, driving
splined shaft G. _ .
H, Wheel driven from sliding pinion on G.
J, Bevel-gears, communicating the motion to spindle B.
K, Screw for feeding carriage C along.
Fig. 55. — Cold-sawing Machine. (Isaac Hill & Son, Derby.)
Three-step cone on shaft G, belted to M, connected by bevel-gears
N and worm-gear 0, to the screw K.
P, Clutch for throwing in to drive K.
Q, Gears connecting shaft of L direct to K, also through clutch P.
R, Handle for operating clutch P, which thus gives slow feed when
clutch is in mesh with 0, and quick return when engaging with P.
5, Tappet rod, having dogs struck by carriage to stop feeding.
T, Work-table, with clamp to hold objects.
U, H-Girder being sawn off.
SHEARING MACHINES]
TOOL
37
to the teeth, should undue stress come upon the saw. This is usually
effected by the use of weights or springs, which allow a certain free-
dom or latitude to the driving gears. The work is held by screw
clamps, V-blocks being required in the case of circular objects. A
number of pieces, such as shafts, rails or girders, can be fastened down
close together in a pile and cut through in one operation.
There is a very useful class of circular saw, the flush-side (fig. 55),
ti'at is valuable for cutting close up to a surface. The disk is bolted
to a flange on the end of the spindle with countersunk bolts, so that
the face is quite flat. Another class of saw used for dealing with
girders and bars is carried in bearings upon a pivoted arm, which
is pulled downwards by a weight to give the feed. The work is
bolted to a table below the saw. Ample lubrication, by oil or soapy
water, is essential in cutting wrought iron and steel; it is pumped
on the blade, keeping it cool and washing away the cuttings.
Band-saw machines resemble in outline the familiar types employed
for sawing wood, but they are necessarily stronger and stiff er, and
the saws run at a much lower speed. The tables, moreover, differ
in possessing compound slides for moving the work and in the provi-
sion of a series of slots on the top table, whereby the object to be sawn
is secured with bolts and clamps. The tables are moved automatic-
ally or by hand. The rate of cutting must be varied according to
the thickness of metal. Lubrication is effected by running the lower
saw pulley in a bath of oil or soapy water, which is carried up, so
keeping the blade cool and " easing " the cut.
The reciprocating class of saw has until recently been confined to
small types for workshop use, termed hack saws, which have a
small blade ranging from 12 to 18 in. long. This is strained between
a couple of bearings in a frame which is reciprocated above the work
clamped in a vice. An arrangement of weights feeds the saw
downwards. The larger hack saws cut off bars and girders up
to 12 in. across, and in some there is a provision introduced for giving
intermittent rotation to the bar, thus presenting fresh faces to
the saw. The hack saw is of great utility for comparatively light
work, and, as the smallest blades are cheap enough to be thrown away
when worn out, there is no trouble and expense connected with their
sharpening, as in the circular and band saws. An adaptation of the
reciprocating saw is that of the jig type, which has a small blade
set vertically and passing up through a table on which the work is
laid. It is handy for cutting out dies and various curved outlines,
in the same manner that fret-sawing in wood is done.
VIII. — Shearing and Punching Machines
These have much in common as regards their mode of operation.
They are actuated either by belt and spur gearing, by steam-engine,
by electric motor, or hydraulically. The first named is only suitable
where arrangements can be made for driving from a line shaft.
In view of the great convenience of the other methods of driving,
they are coming into greater use, especially for ship-yards and other
works where shafting is undesirable or inconvenient.
For boiler makers' and platers' use the function of punching, and
shearing are usually combined in one machine, the rams being placed
at opposite ends and actuated from the same source of power. The
last shaft in the train of gearing is set to bring its ends within the
boxes containing the rams, and eccentrics on the shaft are moved
within die blocks fitted to the rams, so that as the shaft revolves it
causes the rams to move up and down and operate the shear blade and
A,
C,
D,
E,
F,
G,
J,
L,
N,
0,
Fig. 56. — Hydraulic Punching and Shearing Machine. (Musgrave Brothers, Leeds.)
A, Frame. E, Punch. /, K, Main and return rams for
B Shear blades, set angularly. F & G, Main and return rams ditto.
C- Ram for operating blade. for punch. L, M, N, Attendant's control-
D, Small ram for returning ditto. H, Angle shear. ling handles.
Fig. 57. — Steam Hammer, small Overhanging Type.
(B. & S. Massey, Manchester).
Standard. B, Base-plate.
Anvil block (independent of standards).
Tup or hammer head.
E, Pallets, or forging blocks, attached to anvil and tup.
Steam cylinder.
Piston, solid with piston rod H.
Piston valve, regulating period of admission of steam, operated
by hand by lever K or lever N.
Stop or throttle valve for controlling admission of steam to
valve chest, operated by hand lever M.
Lever in contact with roller on tup D, which moves the valve
J automatically as the tup rises and falls.
Lever for pre-adjusting the range of movement of N and /,
according to its setting in the notches of the quadrant from
a to b.
Steam supply pipe from boiler. Q, Exhaust steam pipe.
the punch attached to the bottom
end. Another class of machines is
worked by means of massive levers,
pivoted in the framing, and actuated
by cams on the driving shaft which
cause the levers to rock and move
the punches or shears up and down
by the opposite ends. The punch
slides are constructed to " dwell "
for a short period at the top of the
stroke at each revolution, thus giving
the attendant time to place and ad-
just the plate accurately beneath the
punch. The same effect is obtained
in the eccentric types of machines
mentioned above, by a disengaging
motion,which is thrown in by touching
a lever, thus stopping the punch until
the operator is ready for its descent.
The more complete machines have an
angle shear situated centrally, with
V-blades for severing angle iron. The
largest forms of shears, for massive
plates, usually have the blade recipro-
cated by crank or eccentrics on the
driving shaft, coupled by connecting-
rods to the slide.
Hydraulic punching and shearing
machines are used largely on account
of their convenience, since they dis-
pense with all belts, engines or motors
in the vicinity, and give a very powerful
38
TOOL
[HAMMERS AND PRESSES
stroke. The hydraulic cylinder is generally direct-connected to
the slides, and the operator turns on the pressure water by a lever.
The machine shown in fig. 56 is a very complete example of the
hydraulic type, combining punching and shearing with angle-cutting.
Circular shears are used for the thinner plates and for sheet-metal
work; they embody two circular blades placed with their axes
parallel, and the sharp bevelled edges'n early in contact. The blades
being rotated sever the plate as it is fed between them. Either
straight or circular cuts may be made; true circles or disks are pro-
duced by mounting the plate on a fixed stud and rotating it through
a complete revolution past the cutters.
IX. — Hammers and Presses
The growth in the use of hammers actuated by steam and com-
pressed air, and of presses worked by water power, has been remark-
able. The precursors of the power hammers were the helve and
the Oliver; the first named was operated by gravity, being lifted
by a circle of cams, while the second was lifted by a spring pole
overhead and pulled down by the foot of the workman, acting on
a lever — the hammer shaft. The first was used by the ironworkers
and the second by the smiths, until displaced by the Nasmyth hammer
and its extensive progeny. Even now the old helve and Oliver
survive in some unprogressive shops.
Steam Hammers. — The original hammer as invented by James
Nasmyth was single acting, operating simply by gravity, the function
of the steam being to lift the hammer for each succeeding fall. The
first improvement was made by Rigby, who took the waste steam
exhausted from the lower side of the piston to the upper side and
so imparted some slight pressure in the descent. It was a stage
between the early and the present hammers. In these, high-pressure
steam is admitted above the piston to impart a more powerful blow,
compounded of velocity X mass, than is obtainable by gravity;
hence they are termed double-acting hammers (fig. 57). The
principal difficulties which have to be surmounted in their construc-
tion are those due to the severe concussion of the blows, which
very sensibly shake the ground over an area of many yards. Fram-
ings are made very rigid, and in the larger hammers double, enclosing
the hammer head between them. The foundations are by far the
heaviest used in any machine tools. Deep piling is often resorted
to, supporting crossing timber balks; or concrete is laid in mass on
which the iron anvil block is bedded. This block weighs anywhere
between 100 and 1000 tons. The piston and its rod and the
hammer head are generally a solid steel forging, for the piston rod
is a weak element and cottered or screwed fittings are not trust-
worthy. Piston valves are gener-
ally used in preference to ordinary
D-valves, combining simplicity
of fitting with good balance.
The periods of steam admission
are under the control of the
attendant, so that the length of
stroke and the force of the blow
are instantly responsive to his
manipulation of the operating
lever. Many hammers can be
set to run automatically for any
given length of stroke.
Pneumatic Hammers. — A suc-
cessful type of hammer for the
ordinary operations of the smithy
is that which is actuated by com-
pressed air. Though designs
vary the principle is the same,
namely, air compressed in a
controlling cylinder (fig. 58), and
brought into an operating or
hammer cylinder above the piston.
Cushioning.or releaseof the air be-
low the piston, is under control, as
is the pressure of the air above it.
Drop Hammers. — The require-
ments of forged work have, be-
„ . _ . sides the power hammers ope-
Fig. 58.— Pneumatic Forging rated by a positive down stroke,
been the cause of the develop
Hammer.
(W. & J. Player, Birmingham.)
A , Standards.
Base-plate.
Anvil block.
Tup.
E, Pallets.
B,
C,
D,
E,
G,
H,
R,
ment of an equally large group
which are gravity hammers only
— the drop hammers. They are
put into operation by a belt or
belts, but the function of the
belt is simply to lift the hammer
Hammer cylinder, the piston to the height desired, at which
rod of which is attached point it is released and falls.
to D. The place of the drop hammer
Air compressing cylinder. is in the lighter class of smith's
Belt pulleys which reciprocate work, as that of the steam
by means of the crank 0, hammer lies in the heavier, but
the piston in H. there is much overlapping, since
Handle controlling the valve small steam hammers are rivals
between H and G. to the others in light forging.
But, speaking generally, the largest volume of repetitive die forging
or stamping of light articles is done under drop hammers. The
small arms factories and the regular stamping shops scarcely use
any other type. They may be roughly divided into three great
groups; the belt, the board and the latest form — the Brett lifter.
In each the hammer head or tup is lifted to any height within the
range of lift, the height being controlled by the attendant at each
blow. In most machines setting can be done at any constant
height and the blows delivered automatically. Control is effected
by hand or foot or both. Drop hammers generally have the
advantage of working with greater rapidity than steam hammers.
The original drop hammers, which are believed to have originated
with the locksmiths of Birmingham and district, consisted of a
hammer head attached to a rope, one end of which ran up over
a loose pulley suspended in the roof, and the other was pulled by a
man or two men, so lifting the hammer, which was then allowed to
drop. The principle is embodied in many belt hammers to-day,
but the pulley is driven constantly by shafting, and when the
attendant pulls at the free end of the belt the friction of the pulley
draws the belt over and lifts the hammer until the attendant lets
it go. The weight lifted is greater than in the old type, but the
labour is nevertheless very severe, and the blows are not rapid
enough for quick forging. A far better machine is the board hammer.
In this (fig. 59) the place of the belt is taken by an ordinary strip
of board which passes between two rollers at the top of the hammer,
which rollers are belt driven. The rollers are fitted on eccentric
Fig. 59.— Drop Hammer— board type. (B. & S. Massey,
Manchester.)
A, A, Standards.
B, Anvil, or baseblock.
C, Tup.
D, Board, fitting in slot in tup.
E, F, Rollers gripping and lifting board.
G, H, Pulleys actuating rollers through eccentrics J, K.
L, Rod by which the amount of lift is regulated. _
a, Dog and lever adjustable on L, which strikes the edge b of the
tup, releasing eccentrics and roller and allowing tup to fall,
c, Catch on which tup rests previous to release, fitted into either
one of the row of holes beneath, to suit various heights of drop.
M, Mechanism struck by the edge d of the tup, which either keeps
the roller F clear of the board D, allowing the tup to fall, or
brings the rollers E and F into contact, and lifts the board
and tup.
N, Hand-lever for operating hammer.
0, Foot-lever for ditto, connected by chain e.
/, Spring for lifting levers. ,
P, Rod with nuts g, to compensate for wear on the rollers by the
adjustment of roller E.
HAMMERS AND PRESSES]
TOOL
39
pins, so that the movement of levers causes them to grip the board
for the lift, or release it for the fall, these levers being under the
control of the attendant. They can also be set to operate automically
for any height of lift.
These types are all subject to much concussion and vibration,
because the machines are self-contained ; anvil, standards and heads
being rigidly bolted together, the concussion of every blow is trans-
mitted through the entire mechanism. The Brett hammers (fig. 60)
are designed to lessen this, in some cases by making the anvil distinct
from the superstructure, and in all by connecting the lifting ropes
to the ends of long levers which act something like elastic springs,
absorbing vibration. The driving mechanism is also original,
comprising a cylinder with a wing piston, which is rotated by steam
pressure through an arc of a circle only, sufficiently to operate the
lifting levers. Another advantage is that the lifter cylinder need
not be immediately over the hammer, but may be situated elsewhere.
The hammer can be operated by hand directly for each stroke, or
be set to work automatically.
Fig. 60. — 5 cwt. Belt Drop Hammer with Brett's Lifter.
(Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry.)
A, A, Uprights.
B, Anvil.
Tup.
Belt.
Lifter cylinder.
Valve casing.
Rod operating
lever H.
Rock shaft.
C,
D,
E,
F,
G,
o,
h, Buffer blocks which arrest
motion of lever c.
d, Lever for automatic regula-
tion of valve.
/, Lever for regulating amount
of opening of valve by hand,
valve by K, Foot lever for holding tup in
either of the stops L.
e, Spring for foot lever.
Spring Hammers are a rather smaller group than the others.
In these a belt-driven pulley actuates the tup through the medium
of elastic leaf springs. The length of stroke is adjustable across
the face of a slotted disk on the driving shaft.
Forging Machines. — The Ryder forging machine is fitted with
four or five pairs of swage tools, the lower halves being fixed and
the upper ones driven by a rotating eccentric shaft. The operations
imitate those on the anvil by hand forging, but from 800 to 1200
blows are delivered in a minute. The swages are arranged in succes-
sion, so that an operation is begun at one end and finished at the
other, the attendant moving the bar rapidly through the successive
swages or dies.
Forging Presses. — These are rivals to the hammers, especially
for heavy forgings, from which hammers are being rapidly dis-
placed (fig. 61). It is now well understood that a hammer will not
effect the consolidation of a massive forging right to the centre as a
press will. The force of the hammer blow is not transmitted to the
centre as is that of a press, nor is the
hammer so useful in work of large
dimensions but of no great weight.
In railway and wagon shops the'
presses are used far more frequently
than the hammers. A great advan-
tage of the press is that two and
three rams can be brought into
operation so that a forging may be
pressed from above, from below and
to one side, which is of great value
in complicated forms and in welding,
but is not practicable in the hammers.
Hence the forging presses have be-
come developed for work of average
dimensions as well as for the most
massive. Many are of horizontal type,
termed bull-dozers.
Power presses for working sheet-
metal articles include those for cut-
ting out the blanks, termed cutting-
out or blanking presses, and those
for cupping or drawing the flat blank
into shape if desired (fig. 62). The
lower dies are held upon a bed, and
the upper in a sliding ram, moved
up and down by a cam or crank-
shaft. A clutch mechanism is fitted,
by means of which this shaft is
connected with or disconnected from
the heavy driving-wheel at will to
give a single stroke or a series of
strokes to the ram.
Fig. 61. — Hydraulic Forg-
ing Press. (Fielding & Piatt,
Ltd., Gloucester.)
A, Table.
B, Vertical ram.
C, Drawback ram for return-
r , 1 ln S B.
. In th .e normal D< Horizontal ram.
state the ram remains stationary at £ Controlling valves,
the top position. The lightest presses '
are driven direct by belt on the crank-shaft pulley, but in the heavier
classes spur-gearing must be interposed between the pulley shaft
and the final shaft. The operation of drawing requires an encircling
die which presses on the blank as it lies on its die, the cupping
of the blank being effected by the downward motion of the plunger.
Sectional Elevation.
Fig. 62.-
Front Elevation.
-Power Press.
A, Main frame.
B, Bed for attaching dies.
C, Central slide.
D, Outer slide.
E, Belt pulleys on shaft, geared to wheel F thrown in by clutch
to drive its shaft, which has two crank pins to reciprocate D
and a cam disk actuating C.
G Extractor rocked downwards as slide rises to raise lever H and
work an ejector rod, forcing finished article out of die.
This is why the machine shown in fig. 62 has an outer slide D, which
is made to " dwell " with an even pressure, while the middle ram
is moving down and drawing out the article. Blanking and cupping
may be done as one continuous operation if the work is shallow.
Inclinable presses are employed for certain classes of work, the
object being to let the stamped articles slide down the slope of the
bed as rapidly as they are produced, instead of having to be removed
by the operator. Much work can be placed on the dies by hand,
but for producing large quantities of small articles automatic feeds
4°
TOOL
[PORTABLE TOOLS
are employed whenever possible. A good deal of work is produced
from flat sheet, supplied in the form of a roll and fed through rollers
by intermittent movements to the dies. Circular turn-tables are
also used, operated by ratchet devices, which turn the tables round
to bring a ring of pockets, carrying the pieces, successively under
the dies; the attendant keeps the pockets supplied, but his hands
do not come near the dies.
X. — Portable Tools
The growth of portable machine tools is one of the remarkable
movements of the present day. To some extent they have always
been used, notably in the drilling and tapping operations of loco-
motive fire-boxes, but not until recently to any important extent
in the ordinary fitting and erecting shops. The main reason lay
in the difficulties due to transmission of power by ropes or shafts.
The employment of compressed air, water, electricity and flexible
shafts, by which long distances can be covered, has given new life
to the portable system, which is destined to occupy a place of even
greater importance than it does at present. The reason for the grow-
ing desirability of these tools is to be seen in the massive character
of much, engine and machine construction of the present time.
Although firms that undertake the largest work can generally arrange
to tool the individual parts on machines of massive sizes, that only
meets a part of the difficulty. Very big work cannot be treated
like that of small or even medium dimensions, done repetitively;
that is, it is not practicable to drill and bore and ream and provide
for the fitting of every piece by the aid of templets and jigs, while
the work lies on the machine, but a great deal of adjustment and
mutual fitting has to be accomplished in the course of erection.
Therein lies the opportunity for the portable machine. If this is
not used the alternatives are partial dismantling of the work and
the transference of certain portions to machines or hand work.
Another cause has been the substitution of machining for much hand
work formerly done on massive constructions.
The principal operations for which portable tools are designed are
the following: Drilling, screwing, cutting the seatings for keys,
planing short portions of work, facings for the attachment of other
pieces, as brackets and bearings, hammering operations, as in making
welded joints, caulking the edges of boiler plates, chipping with
hammer and chisel, riveting, ramming sand in foundry moulds,
planing ships' decks, and some operations of lesser magnitude.
Portable tools are used in various ways. The first and most
obvious is to attach them directly to the casting, forging or machine
which is being built up. Thus a drilling machine will be clamped
just where it is required to operate. Or if it has to be used on a
large plane surface as a ship's deck, an electrical machine is suitable,
in which magnetic attraction is set up between the foot of the machine
and the deck sufficient to hold it down. A key-seating machine
will be clamped on the shaft in which a keygroove has to be cut.
A drilling machine may be fastened to a pipe with a chain embracing
the pipe. Very many of the drills, and all the caulking and chipping
hammers, are grasped in the hands and so thrust to their work.
The tapping of screw holes is mostly done in this way, a common
example being the holes for the stay bolts in the fire-boxes of steam
boilers.
Another later method which has been introduced and practised
in a few shops consists in installing a cast-iron floor-plate of large
area, planed truly and provided with bolt holes and slots. On this
a massive casting, forging or piece of work undergoing erection will
be bolted. Then the portable tools — planers, drills, &c, as required —
will be bolted to the table and brought into operation on the various
sections of the work, several sometimes operating simultaneously.
This method is to a certain extent coming into rivalry with the
abnormal growth of machine tools, the development of which has
been greatly accelerated by the massive dimensions of productions
which only became possible by the substitution of steel made fey
the Bessemer and Siemens processes for iron.
The reciprocating motion necessary to effect hammering, chipping
or caulking operations is produced by the action of a solid piston,
sliding in a cylinder (fig. 63) and driven sharply against the end
of the tool by the inrush of compressed air, being then returned
for another stroke. The strokes range in number up to as many
as 2000 per minute in some cases. For heavy riveting a " long-
stroke " hammer is employed, having a longer barrel than the
chipping hammer shown in fig. 63, in order to obtain a greater force
of blow. The operator grasps the hammer by the handle, with his
fingers or thumb on the controlling lever, and as long as this is held
down the blows continue. The air-supply pipe is flexible, so that
it does not impede the movements of the workman. The tools at
the end of the cylinder are simply held in a socket, so that they can
be changed rapidly.
Rotative motion can be produced either by electric or pneumatic
motors, and both systems are in wide use. Pneumatic motors are
very suitable when an air-compressing plant is already laid down
for other tools, while if electricity is used in the works portable tools
operated by this agent may be employed instead of the pneumatic
ones. In the electric drills (fig. 64) a small motor is fitted within
the body and connected by spur-gears to the spindle to effect suitable
speed reduction. A switch provides for stopping and starting the
motor; the current is brought through a flexible cable which, like
pneumatic hose, is armoured with wire to protect it from damage.
The smallest drills are simply gripped in the operator's hand and
Fig. 63. — Tierney Pneumatic Chipping Hammer. (The Globe
Pneumatic Engineering Co., Ltd.)
A, Cylinder.
B, Tool socket, carrying chisel C.
D, Piston, which strikes the back of C.
E, Handle, screwed and clamped to A.
F, Trigger or lever clasped by operator's hand and opening valve G,
admitting compressed air through connexion H, up passage /,
through valve-box K, past valve L, and so against end of D,
moving it towards C. As soon as the groove in the piston D
registers with the hole M, air is admitted from a small hole
(not shown), passes round the groove through hole M and
passage N to the rear of the valve. This acting on the back of
the valve throws it forward, thus shutting off the supply to the
rear of the piston and permitting a small quantity of air to flow
to the forward end of the piston for driving it in a backward
direction. As soon as the air pressure is relieved on the
back of the valve by the uncovering of exhaust holes (not
seen) by the piston D, the valve is returned to the original
position, owing to the air constantly pressing on the small area
of the valve.
pushed up to the work; larger ones are supported by a pillar and
arm, against which the thrust is taken, and the feed given by turning
a screw at intervals.
Fig. 64. — Electrically-driven Hand Drill. (Kramos Ltd., Bath.)
A , Body, cast in aluminium, with handles a, a.
B, Motor, with revolving armature C, connected by spur-gears D,
to the drill spindle E, fitted with ball thrust bearings.
F, Switch, operated by attendant pushing in a plug; the current
is brought by flexible wires through the right-hand handle o.
Pneumatic drills are usually worked by little motors having
oscillating cylinders, by which the air and exhaust ports are covered
and uncovered. They run at a high speed and are geared down
to the spindle. In some cases two cylinders are used, but often
four are fitted to give a powerful and equable turning moment.
Grinding machines are also built with air motors directly coupled
to the wheel spindle, the machines being moved about over the work
by handles.
Another class of portable tools is driven, not by self-contained
motors, but from an outside source of power, which is conveyed to
the tools through flexible shafts built up of a series of spiral springs,
or through flexible joints which form a connexion that permits the
shaft to bend round corners and accommodate itself to any position
in which the tool may be placed. The advantage of this is that the
tool itself is much lightened, since there is no motor, and it can
therefore be easily handled. Thus a drill simply contains the
spindle, running in a frame which carries bevel-gears for transmitting
the motion of the flexible shaft. Portable grinders also have nothing
but the spindle, wheel and frame.
XI. — Appliances
Appliances are vastly more numerous in a modern shop than in
the older works, largely on account of the more repetitive character
WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY]
TOOL
4i
of the operations done and of the desire to eliminate human labour,
with its greater cost and chances of inaccuracy in the finished pro-
duct. On all machines there are numerous aids by which the fixing
of the work is facilitated. Many of these consist of simple packing
blocks, by which heights are adjusted. These reach their higher
developments in wedge-shaped packings, some of which are operated
by a screw, while others act directly by screws. In some cases the
exact height can be ascertained by observing graduations on
the packings. Circular work is held in V-blocks, which occur in
numerous modified forms. Various kinds of straps, clamps and bolts
are used for gripping work with sufficient security to enable it to
withstand the stress of the heaviest cutting. The highest develop-
ment of all is attained in the templets and jigs, which are now
indispensable in all modern shops, and which increase in number
and complexity as the product of the shop becomes more specialized.
A templet is a piece of metal cut to a definite shape, which being
laid upon the work becomes a guide for striking the same shape
on the surface of the work with a pointed scriber, and by which the
tooling of any number of similar pieces is done without the labour
of lining out each separate piece. Obviously, in such a case the
degree of accuracy of the tooling still depends on the machine hand,
who may work exactly, or only approximately, to these lines. Hence
a great advance is made in the jig, which may be defined generally
as a templet that is clamped rigidly to the work, or a box in which
the work to be tooled is held. No marking off is done, but the jig
becomes the actual guide for the operation of the cutting tools.
The operation most frequently performed in jigs is drilling. Then
the holes in the jig receive and coerce the drills, so that the holes
made cannot vary in the least degree from those already in the jig.
As it will often happen that hundreds or thousands of similar pieces
will have to be tooled in this manner, holes in jigs are generally
bushed with hardened steel, which is capable of enduring very
lengthy service, and which can be renewed when worn. This is
a simple illustration, but many jigs are of an extremely elaborate
character, for it is obvious that the cost of a jig, though it may run
into many pounds, becomes a mere trifle when spread over some
thousands of pieces of work.
XII. — Wood-working Machinery
There is a large range of various classes of tools for performing
the operations on timber, from the rough log to the finished product.
Division is effected by saws, planing and finishing to outlines by
knives or cutters, boring by augers and smoothing by sandpaper.
The first operation is that of tree-felling, which is often effected
by machine, consisting of a reciprocating blade, working horizontally
in a frame and moved by a steam cylinder. The boiler is separate,
so that the machine may be transported about and set to work over
a considerable area, steam being conveyed to it by a flexible pipe.
When the trees are brought into the saw-mills in the form of logs,
i.e. with the branches lopped off, they are often cross-cut to reduce
them to suitable lengths. This operation is effected either by a
reciprocating saw, operated by a pulley and crank, or by an electric
motor, or else with a circular saw, travelling on a carriage which
moves the saw through the log laid in front of it. The next opera-
tion, that of division or breaking-down into smaller portions, is
done by saws of various types, according to the class of work. The
oldest form of machine is the frame-saw, which is still used very
largely. It comprises a framing within which a saw-gate or saw-
frame is reciprocated up and down by a crank; the frame holds a
number of saws or webs of flat form, strained up tightly with wedges
or cotters between the top and bottom of the frame, the distance
between the saws being capable of variation to suit boards of all
thicknesses. The log is fed longitudinally to the gang of saws upon
carriages, which are of two types. In the roller-feed, which is
suitable for comparatively even and straight logs, ribbed rollers
in front and behind the saws obtain a bite on the top and bottom
of the timber and feed it forward by their rotation. In the rack-feed
the log is mounted bodily upon a long carriage that runs by rollers
upon a set of rails, and the carriage is travelled along by pinions and
racks, which give a positive feed regardless of the shape of the log.
The carriage in the roller-feed machines is only represented by a
couple of plain trolleys supporting the timber at back and front.
The feed is obtained through a friction wheel of V-shape, with a
smooth pawl, called the silent feed ; the wheel is given a partial
rotation at each down stroke of the saw-gate to turn the rollers or
the pinions for carrying forward the log. The division of the timber
may be either into deals or flitches, or planks or boards. In the
last-named case as many as fifty saw-blades are sometimes held in
a frame.
For the more valuable hardwoods a single blade reciprocating
saw, operated horizontally, is used very largely, the machine being
termed a board-cutter. The log is clamped to a travelling table,
passing underneath the saw, which is strained in a frame sliding
on a cross-rail that can be adjusted up or down on a couple of up-
rights like a planing machine. The saw is worked from a crank and
connecting-rod. As only one board is sawn at a time the attendant
is able to see the figuring of the timber and to avoid waste when bad
places are encountered.
A machine much more rapid in operation is the horizontal band-
saw, modelled on the lines of the above machine, but with a band-
saw blade running over two pulleys, at a high speed, of about 7000 ft.
per minute. The saws are very thin, so that a minimum of wood is
wasted in the cut or " kerf," a very important consideration in
dealing with costly woods. Vertical band-saws, having one pulley
above the other so that the blade runs vertically, are very popular
in America; they occupy less floor space than the horizontal types.
It is necessary to present the log from the side, and it is therefore
clamped by dogs upon a carriage running on rails, with provision
for feeding the log laterally to the saw by sliding ways on the carriage.
The use of circular saws for breaking-down is confined chiefly
to squaring up heavy balks, which need only a cut on each side, or
for cutting thick slabs. The thickness of the saw entails considerable
waste of wood, and a large amount of power is required for driving.
The machines are termed rack-benches, and comprise a long divided
table built up of thin plates and travelling past the fixed saw upon
rollers, the movement being effected by a rack and pinion.
Re-sawing machines are those designed for further cutting-up
deals, flitches, planks, &c, already broken out from the log, into
boards and other scantlings. The deal and flitch frames are built
on the model of the frame-saws first described, but with the differ-
ences that roller feed is always used, because the stuff is smooth and
easily fed, and that the back of the timber is run against fences to
keep it moving in a straight line. In the double equilibrium frames,
which are much favoured, there are two sets of saws in separate
frames connected by rods to opposite crank-shafts, so that as one
frame is rising the other is going down ; the forces are thus balanced
and vibration is diminished, so that the machines can be speeded
rather higher. Re-sawing is also done on circular and band saws
of various types, fitted with fences for guiding the timber and
controlling the thicknesses.
The cross-cut saws constitute another large group. They are
employed for cutting-off various classes of stuff, after breaking-down
or re-sawing, and are of circular saw type. The pendulum saw is
a suspended form, comprising a circular saw at the bottom of a hang-
ing arm, which can be pulled over by the attendant to draw the
saw through a piece of wood laid on a bench beneath. Circular
saws are also mounted in tables or benches and made to part off
stuff moved laterally upon a sliding-table. When there is sufficient
repetition work machines with two or more saws are used to cut
one or more pieces to accurate length without the necessity for
measurement.
The lighter classes of circular and band-saws, employed for sawing
up comparatively small pieces of timber, embody numerous provisions
for quickening output. The plain saw benches, with circular saws,
are the simplest class, Consisting merely of a framed table or bench
carrying bearings for the saw spindle and a fence on the top to guide
the wood. A mechanical feed is incorporated in the heavier machines
to push the timber along. The rope-feed mechanism includes a
drum driven at varying rates and giving motion to a rope, which is
connected with a hook to the timber, to drag it along past the saw,
roller supports on rails taking the weight at each end of the bench.
Roller-feed saws propel the stuff by the contact of vertical fluted
rollers placed opposite the fence. Other classes of saws for joinery
work, &c, are constructed with rising and falling spindles, so that
the saw may be made to project more or less from the table, this
provision being necessary in grooving and tonguing with special
types of saws. The same effect is obtained by making the table
instead of the spindle rise and fall.
As it is necessary to use different saws for ripping (with the grain)
and cross-cutting, some machines embody two saws so that work
can be cut to shape on the same machine. These " dimension saws "
have two spindles at the opposite ends of a pivoted arm that can
be turned on a central pin to bring one or the other saw above as
required. In cases where much angular and intricate sawing is
done universal benches are employed, having in addition to the
double saws a tilting motion to the table, which in conjunction with
various special fittings enables the sawyer to produce a large range
of pieces for any class of construction.
Band-saws, which have a thin narrow blade, are adapted especi-
ally for curved sawing and cutting-out work which the circular saw
cannot manage. The usual design of machine (fig. 65) comprises a stiff
standard supporting a lower pulley in fixed bearings, and an upper
one in a sliding bearing, which by means of a weight or spring is
caused to rise and maintain an even tension on the saw blade as it
is driven by the lower pulley, and runs the upper one. India-rubber
tires are placed around the pulley rims to prevent damage to the
saw teeth. The table, placed between the pulleys, may be angled
for cutting bevel work. It is necessary, in order to do true work,
to guide the saw blade above and below the cut, and it is therefore
run in guides consisting of flat strips, in combination with anti-
friction rollers which take the backward thrust of the saw. Fret
or jig saws are a small class with a vertical reciprocating blade,
employed chiefly for cutting out interior portions which necessitate
threading the saw first through a hole.
Planing machines, used for truing up the surfaces of wood after
sawing, depend for their action upon rapidly revolving knives
fastened to flat-sided cutter blocks. The simplest machines, the
hand-planers, have a cutter cylinder revolving between two flat
42
TOOL
[WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY
table slides adjustable for height to support the wood while it is
pushed along over the knives by the hand. A fence guides it in a
straight line. Exact thicknessing is done on another type of
machine, the panel planer or thicknesser, in which the cutter cylinder
revolves above the table and the stuff is fed through by rollers above
Fig. 65. — Band-sawing Machine with 30 in. pulleys.
(Thomas White & Sons, Paisley.)
A , Cast-iron cored frame.
B, Fast and loose pulleys driving pulley C.
D, Belt shipper operated by handle E.
F, Upper saw pulley, with its shaft carried in swivel bearing.
G, Screw for raising or lowering F to suit saw.
H, Spring to maintain even tension on saw, by raising E.
J, Counterbalanced guide bar, having a Jackson guide K at bottom ;
K has wooden strips embracing the saw and a ball-bearing
roller against which the back runs, while / is adjusted up or
down to bring K as near to the work as convenient.
L, Table, with slit for saw; it may be canted for bevel sawing, by
means of hand worm-gear M.
N, Protective casing to saw.
0, Guard to prevent saw flying over in case of breakage.
and below. By altering the height of the table the thickness of
wood can be varied. Double machines include a cutter cylinder
above and below the timber, so that the upper and under sides are
planed simultaneously. A combination of the hand-planer and
the thicknesser is useful in cases where space or expenditure must
be limited.
When large quantities of planed stuff are wanted, such as for
flooring-boards, &c, other types of machines are employed. The
four-cutter planers are the most rapid in output, and the timber
is passed through them at a high rate, ranging up to 150 ft. per
minute. There is first a revolving cutter cylinder, which roughs
off the underside of the stuff, whence it passes (being propelled by
rollers) to a fixed knife which imparts a very smooth face. A little
farther on in the machine two vertical cutter blocks are encountered
which carry cutters to plane or tongue or mould the edges, after
which another cylinder above finishes the top face. Similar types
of machines are made to produce mouldings, using four cutters
shaped to suit the pattern required.
Moulding is also done on the vertical spindle shapers, which carry
a cutter or cutters at the top of a spindle projecting through a flat
table. The work is slid over the table and controlled by touching
a collar below the cutter. Any form may be given to the cutters
to produce different profiles. Some special moulding machines
use a cutter at the end of a spindle projecting downwards from an
arm overhanging a table, an arrangement which enables recessing
and carving to be performed.
Boring machines comprise rotating spindles and feeding mechanism
to actuate augers. The single spindle machines are satisfactory
enough for ordinary work, but when a number of differently sized
holes have to be bored in a single piece of work, or in rapid succession,
it is the practice to employ a machine with a number of spindles, so
that a succession of augers of graduated diameters may be ready
to use at will.
Mortising or cutting slots is done in vertical machines with a
reciprocating spindle, operated either by hand or by crank disk
and pulleys. The tool that cuts the mortise resembles a wood-
worker's chisel, but is of stouter form and has a suitable shank to
fit in the spindle. The latter can be reversed to turn round and let
the chisel face in the opposite direction for cutting at each end of a
Fig. 66. — Mortising and Boring Machine with graduated stroke.
(John McDowall & Sons, Johnstone.)
A, Frame.
B, Auger head, driven by belt C.
D, Mortising chisel reciprocated up and down by crank-disk E,
F, G, Levers connecting crank-pin to spindle of D.
H, Treadle connected to F; a gradually increasing stroke is
imparted to the chisel by depressing H, which brings F, G
into play and continually lengthens the stroke of D, cutting
the mortise without shock.
/, Fast and loose pulleys driving E.
K, Cord actuated from shaft of /, which reverses the chisel when
the handle L is moved and makes it cut in the reverse
position.
M, Knee raised or lowered by hand-wheel and screw.
N, Cross-slide, adjusted by hand- wheel and screw.
0, Longitudinal slide, moved by rack and pinion and hand-
wheel.
P, Timber vice.
mortise. A boring spindle is often incorporated with the machine
to make holes for the mortising chisel to start in (fig. 66). Another
class of mortiser employs a square hollow chisel, inside of which an
auger rotates and first bores a hole leaving to the chisel the duty
of finishing out the corners. The chain mortiser is another type;
it has an endless chain of flat links, sharpened to make cutting teeth,
and is run around a bar and a roller at a high speed, so that when
fed into the wood a recess or mortise is cut out.
Tenoning machines, designed to cut the reduced ends or tenons
to fit in mortises, perform their work by the aid of cutter blocks,
revolved on horizontal spmdles above and below the timber, which
is fed laterally upon a sliding carriage.
Dovetailing is effected by revolving cutters in machines having
mechanism for pitching out the cuts, or if the work warrants it an
entire row of dovetails is made at one traverse, by fitting a row of
MEASUREMENT]
TOOL
43
cutters and feeding simultaneously. Corner-locking, or cutting
parallel tongues and grooves in the edges of boxes, &c, is a rather
more rapid operation than dovetailing, and is done with suitable
cutter blocks or disks of appropriate thickness and pitching apart.
The general joiner, as its name implies, will do a large variety of
operations, and is used in shops and on estates where a complete
plant of machines would be out of the question. It usually has a
circular saw and sometimes a band-saw also, together with planing
and moulding apparatus, a moulding spindle, boring spindle and
tenoning apparatus.
The lathes used in woodworking comprise the plain hand types
with a simple T-rest on which the turner rests the tools to deal with
the work revolving between centres, and the copying or Blanchard
lathes, in which a master form or copy is rotated and caused by the
contact and coercion of a roller to move the cutter rest in a corre-
sponding fashion, so that the work is cut away until it exactly
matches the shape of the copy.
Sand-papering machines, which finish the surface of wood to a
high degree, deal with both flat and curved faces. Flat boards,
panels, &c, can be done by contact against revolving drums or
disks covered with glass-paper, being fed along over them by hand
or by rotating rollers. In one class of machine a revolving disk is
placed at the end of a series of jointed arms, by which the disk can
be moved about over the work resting on a table underneath.
XIII. — Measurement
An advance of the greatest importance made in mechanical
engineering is that of measurement. Since the beginning of the 19th
century steady movement has been going on in this direction until it
seems impossible that much greater refinement can now be looked for.
Probably the chief advances to be expected will lie in the general
extension in workshop practice of the knowledge already acquired,
rather than in the acquisition of higher degrees of refinement.
Methods of measurement adopted in woodworking have but little
application in high-class engineers' work. They are adopted, how-
ever, to a considerable extent in the metal trades which are allied
to engineering, as sheet metal working, girder work, &c. When a
carpenter or joiner sets about constructing a door, window sash,
roof or box he takes a two-foot rule, a flat lead pencil, and marks off
the dimensions and lines by which he intends to work. If he has to
work very carefully, then instead of using a pencil he cuts a line
with the edge of a keen scriber or chisel-like tool, by which to saw,
plane or chisel. If outlines are curved, the compasses are brought
into requisition, and these cut a fine line or lines on the surface of
the wood. But in any case the eye alone judges of the coincidence
ot the cutting with the lines marked. Whether the tool used be saw,
chisel, gouge or plane, the woodworker estimates by sight alone
whether or not the lines marked are worked by.
The broad difference between his method and that of the engineer's
machinist lies in this, that while the first tests his work by the eye,
the second judges of its accuracy or otherwise by the sense of touch.
It may seem that there cannot be very much difference in these two
methods, but there is. To the first, the sixty-fourth part of an inch
is a fine dimension, to the second one-thousandth of an inch is rather
coarse. Now the thickness of tissue paper is about one-thousandth
of an inch, and no one could possibly work so closely as that by the
eye alone. Engineers' steel rules usually have one inch which is
divided into one hundred parts. Tolerably keen sight is required
to distinguish those divisions, and few could work by them by ocular
measurement alone, that is, by placing them in direct juxtaposition
with the work. A thousandth part of an inch seems by com-
parison a fine dimension. But it is very coarse when considered
in relation to modern methods of measurement. In what are called
" limit gauges " the plugs and rings are made of slightly different
dimensions. If a plug is made a thousandth of an inch less than
its ring it will slip through it easily with very perceptible slop.
The common rule is therefore scarcely seen in modern machine
shop, while the common calipers fill but a secondary place, their
function having been invaded by the gauges. A minute dimension
cannot be tested by lines of division on a rule, neither can a dimen-
sion which should be fixed be tested with high precision with a
movable caliper of ordinary type. Yet it must not be supposed
that the adoption of the system of gauging instead of the older
methods of rule measurement relieves men'of responsibility. The
instruments of precision require delicate handling. Rough forcing
of gauges will not yield correct results. A clumsy workman is as
much out of place in a modern machine shop as he would be in a
watch factory. Without correctness of measurement mechanical
constructions would be impossible, and the older device of mutual
fitting of parts is of lessening value in face of the growth of the inter-
changeable system, of international standards, and of automatic
machine tools which are run with no intervention save that of feeding
stock.
The two broad divisions of measurement by sight and by contact
are represented in a vast number of instruments. To the first-
named belong the numerous rules in wood and metal and with
English and metric divisions, and the scales which are used for
setting out dimensions on drawings smaller than those of the real
objects, but strictly proportional thereto. The second include all
the gauges. These are either fixed or movable, an important sub-
division. The first embrace two groups — one for daily workshop
service, the other for testing and correcting the wear of these, hence
termed " reference gauges." They are either made to exact standard
sizes, or they embody " limits of tolerance," that is, allowances for
certain classes of fits, and for the minute degrees of inaccuracy
which are permissible in an interchangeable system of manufacture.
The movable group includes a movable portion, either correspond-
ing with one leg of a caliper or having an adjustable rod, with pro-
vision for precise measurement in the form of a vernier or of a screw
thread divided micrometrically. These may be of general character
for testing internal or external diameters, or for special functions
as screw threads. Subtitles indicate some particular aspect or
design of the gauges, as " plug and ring," " caliper," " horseshoe,"
" depth," " rod," "end measure," &c. So severe are the require-
ments demanded of instruments of measurement that the manu-
facture of the finer kinds remains a speciality in the hands of a very
few firms. The cost and experience necessary are so great that
prices rule high for the best instruments. As these, however, are
not required for ordinary workshop use, two or three grades are
manufactured, the limits of inaccuracy being usually stated and a
guarantee given that these are not'exceeded.
Measurement by Sight. Rules and Scales. — The rules are used
for marking off distances and dimensions in conjunction with other
instruments, as scribers, compasses, dividers, squares; and for test-
ing and checking dimensions when marked, and work in course of
reduction or erection, directly or from calipers. They are made in
boxwood and in steel, the latter being either rigid or flexible, as
when required to go round curves. Rules are fitted in combination
with other instruments, as sliding calipers, squares, depth gauges,
&c. The scales are of boxwood, of ivory, the value of which is dis-
counted by its shrinkage, and of paper. They are of flat section
with bevelled edges, and of oval and of triangular sections, each
giving a thin edge to facilitate readings. They are fully divided,
or open divided ; in the first case each division is alike subdivided,
in the second only the end ones are thus treated.
The Gauges. Fixed Gauges. — These now embrace several kinds,
the typical forms being represented by the cylindrical or plug and
ring gauges and by the caliper form or snap gauges. The principle
in each is that a definite dimension being embodied in the gauge,
the workman has not to refer to the rule, either directly or through
the medium of a caliper. This distinction, though slight, is of
immense importance in modern manufacturing. Broadly it corre-
sponds with the difference between the older heterogeneous and the
present interchangeable systems.
Plug and Ring Gauges. — The principal ones and the originals of
all the rest, termed Whitworth gauges after the inventor, are the
plug and ring gauges (fig. 67, A and
B). The principle on which they
depend is that if the two gauges are
made to fit with perfect accuracy,
without tightness on the one hand
or slop on the other, then any
work which is measured or turned
and bored or ground by them will
also fit with equal accuracy. Bored
holes are tested by the plug gauge,
and spindles are tested by the
ring gauge, and such spindles and
holes make a close fit if the work
is done carefully. Of course, in prac-
tice, there is very much variation in
the character of the work done,
and the finest gauges are too fine
for a large propor ion of engineers'
work. It is possible to make these Fig. 67.
gauges within S t>oT^ of an inch, a n tji .„ ' a '■
But they are seldom required so r" 'n'ff g g gaUgeS>
fine as that for shop use; VAo is n' Difference gauge,
generally fine enough. For general D > Stepped reference gauge,
shop work the gauges are made to within about j^ns of an
inch. Standard gauges in which the plug and ring are of the
same diameter will only fit by the application of a thin film of oil
and by keeping the plug in slight movement within the ring.
Without these precautions the two would " seize " so hard that they
could not be separated without force and injury.
Plug and Ring v. Horseshoe Gauges. — The horseshoe, snap or
caliper gauges (fig. 68) are often used in preference to the plug and
ring types. They are preferred because the surfaces in contact
are narrow. These occur in various designs, with and without
handles, separately and in combination and in a much larger range
of dimensions than the plug and ring. Ring gauges are not quite
such delicate instruments as the fixed caliper gauges. But since
they measure diameter only, and turned work is not always quite
circular, the caliper gauges are not so convenient for measurement
as the round gauges, which fit in the same manner as the parts have
to fit to one another.
Fixed Gauges. Limit Gauges. — Some fits have to be what
is termed in the shops " driving fits," that is, so tight that they
» *
■+ " kSVe&s
44
TOOL
[MEASUREMENT
have to be effected by driving with a hammer or a press, while
others have to be " working fits," suitable, say, for the revolution of
a loose pulley on its shaft or of an axle in its bearings. The " limit "
or " difference gauges " (figs. 67 and 68) are designed for producing
these working fits ; that is, the plug and ring gauges differ in dimen-
sions so that the work bored will drive tightly, or slide freely over
<=€>
Fig. 68.
A, Separate caliper or snap C, Difference gauge.
gauges. D, Newall adjustable limit
B, Combined internal and ex- gauge.
ternal gauges. a, b, Plugs,
the work turned. These are variously sub-classified. The system
which is generally accepted is embodied in the gauges by the Newall
Engineering Co. These embrace force fits, which require the applica-
tion of a screw or hydraulic press; driving fits, that require less
power, as that of a hammer; push fits, in which a spindle can be
thrust into its hole by hand; and running fits, such as that of shafts
in bearings. Fixed gauges are made for each of these, but as this
involves a heavy outlay the Newall firm have adjustable limit
gauges (fig. 68, D) for external dimensions, the standard plug being
used for holes. The setting is done by screwed plugs or anvils
adjusted by reference bars. In all these gauges the " go on " and
" not go on " ends respectively are stamped on the gauge, or the
equivalents of + and — .
Fixed Reference Gauges. Reference Disks and End Measuring
Rods. — Shop working gauges become in time so damaged by service
that they fail to measure so accurately as when new. To correct
these errors reference gauges are provided, by which the inaccuracy of
the worn ones is brought to the test. These are never used in the
shops for actual measurement of work, but are only kept for checking
the truth of the working gauges. They include disk, stepped and
end measurement gauges. The disk and the stepped are used for
testing the ring gauges, the stepped kind comprising essentially a
collection of disks in one piece (fig. 67, D). The end measure pieces
test the external gauges. The end measure standard lengths
made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. are so accurate that any sizes
taken at random in any numbers from J in. to 4 in., varying by
sixteenths of an inch, will, when placed end to end, make up an exact
length ; this is a difficult test, since slight variations in the lengths of
the components would add up materially when multiplied by the
number of pieces. The ends are ground off with diamond dust or
emery in a special machine under water, and are so true that one
piece will support another by cohesive force, and this though the
surfaces are less than \ in. square.
Movable Gauges. — This extensive group may be regarded as
compounded of the common caliper and the Whitworth measuring
machine. They are required when precise dimensions have to be
ascertained in whole numbers and minute fractional parts. They
combine the sense of touch by contact, as in the calipers, with the
exact dimensions obtained by inspection of graduated scales, either
the vernier or the micrometer screw. If gauges must not vary by
more than Trim of an inch, which is the limit imposed by
modern shop ideals, then instruments must be capable of measuring
to finer dimensions than this. Hence, while the coarser classes of
micrometers read directly to tAir P ar t of an inch, the finest
measure up to iobWo oi an inch, about 200 times as fine as the
diameter of a human hair. They range in price correspondingly
from about a sovereign to £100.
The Calipers. — Common calipers (fig. 69) are adjusted over or
within work, and the dimensions are taken therefrom by a rule or a
gauge. They usually have no provision for minute adjustment
beyond the gentle tapping of one of the legs when setting. In some
forms screw adjustment is provided, and in a few instances a vernier
attachment on the side of the pivot opposite to the legs.
Vernier Calipers. — The vernier fitting, so named after its inventor,
Pierre Vernier, in 1631, is fitted to numerous calipers and caliper
rules. It is applied to calipers for engineers' use to read to ^-fc$
of an inch without requiring a magnifier. The beam of the caliper
is divided into inches and tenths of the inch, and each tenth into
fourths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, or the beam is divided
into fiftieths of an inch (fig. 70) and the vernier has 20 divisions to
19 on the rule. The caliper jaws are adapted to take both external
and internal dimensions. These " beam calipers " are also made
for metric divisions. Minor variations in design by different
manufacturers are numerous.
Fig. 69. — Calipers.
A, Ordinary external type, adjusted by tapping the legs.
B, Type adjusted by screw in auxiliary leg.
C, Screw calipers, opened by contraction of curved spring and closed
by nut.
D, Self-registering caliper, with pointer moving over quadrant.
E, Common internal type.
F, Screw type with spring.
G, Combined internal and external for measuring chambered holes.
H, Compass caliper for finding centres.
J, Keyhole caliper for measuring from hole to outside of boss.
Fig. 70. — Vernier Caliper.
A, Beam; B, vernier; C, fixed jaw; D, movable jaw; E,
clamping head; F, abutment head, with adjusting screw a, for
fine adjustment of D.
S o 00
Fig. 71. — Measuring Machine. (The Newall Engineering Co.)
A, Hollow base or bed, mounted on three points.
B, Measuring or fast headstock.
C, Movable head, or tailstock.
D, Spirit-level to indicate alterations in length of piece being
measured due to changes in temperature, termed the indi-
cator or comparator.
E, Measuring screw.
F, Nut for rapid adjustment of ditto.
G, Knob of speed screw for slow movement of ditto.
H, Dividing and measuring wheel.
/, Vernier or reading bar.
a, a. Points between which contact is made.
MEASUREMENT]
TOOL
45
Micrometer Calipers are the direct offspring of the Whitworth
measuring machine. In the original form of this machine a screw
of 20 threads to the inch, turned by a worm-wheel of 200 teeth
iuid single-threaded worm, had a wheel on the axis of the worm with
250 divisions on its circumference, so that an ad j ustment of ro $ of
an inch was possible. The costly measuring machines made to-day
have a dividing wheel on the screw, but they combine modifications
to ensure freedom from error, the fruits of prolonged experience.
Good machines are made by the Whitworth, the Pratt & Whitney,
the Newall (fig. 71), and the Brown & Sharpe firms. These are
used for testing purposes. But there are immense numbers of small
instruments, the micrometer calipers (fig. 72), made for general
shop use, measuring directly to jjVj of an inch, and in the
Micrometer Calipers.
a,
Fig. 72.
A, Frames.
B, Anvil or abutment.
C, Hub divided longitudinally.
D, Spindle with micrometer
screw.
E, Thimble, divided circularly.
(Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.)
Adjusting nuts for taking up
wear.
Clamping nut.
Ratchet stop.which slips under
undue pressure to ensure
uniform measurement.
hands of careful men easily to half and quarter thousandths ; these
cost from £1 to £1, 10s. only. In these the subdivision of the turns
of the screw is effected by circular graduations. Usually the screw
Fig. 73.
A, Beam.
B, Head, . adjustable by equal
inch divisions, by lines a, a,
or holes b, b, and plug b'
holes bushed.
■Beam Micrometer Calipers.
C, Abutment block with
c for fine adjustment.
d, Clamping screws.
D, Micrometer.
e, Anvil.
pitch is 40 to the inch, and the circular divisions number 25, so that
a movement of one division indicates that the screw has been ad-
vanced ^5 of j^or jj'jij of an inch. Provision for correcting or
taking up the effects of wear is included in these designs (e.g. at
a in fig. 72), and varies with different manufacturers. A vernier is
sometimes fitted in addition, in very high class instruments, to the
circular divisions, so that readings of ten thousandths of an inch can
be taken. Beam micrometer calipers (fig. 73) take several inches
in length, the micrometer being reserved for fractional parts of the
inch only.
Depth Gauges. — It is often necessary to measure the depth of
one portion of a piece of work below another part, or the height of
one portion relatively to a lower one. To hold a rule perpendicularly
and take a sight is not an accurate method, because the same
objections apply to this as to rule measurement in general. There
are many depth gauges made with rule divisions simply, and then
these have the advantage of a shouldered face which rests upon the
upper portion of the work and from which the rule measurement is
©
a
r*
^—\
A
Fig. 74. — Depth Gauges.
A, Plain round rod o, sliding in head b, and pinched with screw c.
B, Rule a, graduated into inches or metric divisions, sliding on head
b, in grooved head of clamping screw c.
C, Slocomb depth gauge, fitted with micrometer, a, Rod marked in
half inches, sliding in head b; c, hub; d, thimble corresponding
with similar divided parts in the micrometer calipers ; e, clamp-
ing screw.
taken (fig. 74). These generally have a clamping arrangement.
But for very accurate work either the vernier or the micrometer
fitting is applied, so that depths can be measured in thousandths
of an inch, or sometimes in sixty-fourths, or in metric subdivisions.
3 a *
C
Fig. 75. — Rod Gauges.
A, Pratt & Whitney gauge, o, Tube split at ends; 6, b, chucks
clamping tube on plain rod c, and screwed end d. Rough
adjustment is made on rod c, of which several are provided;
fine adjustment is by screwed end d.
B, Sawyer gauge, a, Body; 6, extension rods for rough adjust-
ment, several being supplied and pinched with screw c ;
d, screwed end with graduated head ; e, reading arm extending
from body over graduations ; /, clamping screw.
Rod Gauges. — When internal diameters have to be taken, too
large for plug gauges or calipers to span, the usual custom is to set
a rod of iron or steel across, file it till it fits the bore, and then
measure its length with a rule. More accurate as well as adjust-
able are the rod gauges (fig. 75) to which the vernier or the micro-
meter are fitted. These occur in a few varied designs.
Screw Thread Gauges. — The taking of linear dimensions, though
provided for so admirably by the systems of gauging just dis-
cussed, does not cover the important section of screw measurement.
This is a department of the highest importance. In most English
shops the only test to-day of the size of a screw or nut is the 'use
of a standard screw or nut. That there is variation in these is
evidenced by the necessity for fitting nuts to bolts when large
4 6
TOOL
[MEASUREMENT
numbers of these are being assembled, after they have been used
in temporary erections or when nuts are brought from the stores
to fit smds or bolts cut in the shop. This method may suffice in
many classes of work, but it is utterly unsuited to an interchange-
able system ; and when there is a fair amount of the latter firms
sometimes make thread gauges of their own, in general form like
the plug and ring gauges, using a hard quality of steel for small
sizes or a tough quality of cast iron for the larger. These, though
not hardened, will endure for a long time if treated carefully. But
of an inch (fig. 77). They are used in some kinds of lathe chuck
work, but their principal value is in fitting and erecting the finer
mechanisms.
^^^^^^^^^^^^^
a
ill
A
c^tr
b ^
Fig. 76. — Screw Thread Gauges. (Pratt & Whitney Co.)
A, Plug gauge; o, size of tapping hole; b, thread.
B, Ring gauge; a, pins to prevent lateral movement ; J, adjusting
screw for opening gauge ; c, screw for closing ditto.
though very useful and far better than none at all they lack two
essentials. They are simply accommodation gauges, made to an
existing tap or die, and do not therefore embody any precise abso-
lute measurement, nor do they include
any means for measuring variations from
standard, nor are they hardened. To
produce gauges to fulfil these require-
ments demands an original standard to
work by, micrometric measurements, and
the means of grinding after the harden-
ing process. These requirements are
fulfilled in the screw thread gauges and
calipers of the Pratt & Whitney and the
Brown & Sharpe companies. The essen-
tial feature of a screw gauge is that it
measures the sides of the threads with-
out risk of a possible false reading due
to contact on the bottom or top of the
V. This is fulfilled by flatting the top
and making the bottom of the gauge
keen. The Pratt & Whitney gauges are
made as a plug and ring (fig. 76), the
plug being solid and the ring capable of
precise adjustment round it. There is
a plain round end, ground and lapped
exactly to the standard size of the bottom
of the thread, a dimension which is
obliterated in the threaded end because of the bottoms of the
angles being made keen for clearance. There are three kinds of
this class of gauge made; the first and most expensive is hardened
and ground in the angle, while the second is hardened but not
ground. The first is intended for use when a very perfect gauge
is required, the second for ordinary shop usage. The third is
made unhardened for purposes of reference simply, and it is
not brought into contact with the work to be tested at all,
but measurements are taken by calipers; in every detail it repre-
sents the standard threads. The Brown & Sharpe appliance is
of quite a different character. It is a micrometer caliper having
a fixed V and a movable point between which the screw to be
measured is embraced. By the reading of the micrometer and
the use of a constant the diameter of any thread in the middle
of the thread can be estimated.
Miscellaneous. — The foregoing do not exhaust the gauges. There
are gauges for the sectional shapes of screw threads of all pitches,
gauges for drilled holes that have to be screwed, gauges for the
depth and thickness of the teeth of gear-wheels, gauges for the tapers
of machine spindles, gauges for key-grooves, &c. There are also
the woodworker's gauges — the marking and cutting, the panel,
the mortise and the long-tooth.
Indicators are a small group of measuring instruments of a rather
peculiar character. They magnify the most minute error by adapta-
tions of long and short lever arms. The Bath, the Starrett and the
Brown & Sharpe are familiar in high-class shops. Some simply
magnify inaccuracy, but in one type an index reads to thousandths
Fig. 77. — Indicator.
A, Base; B, stem; C, arm; D, pointer or feeler, pivoted at
a, and magnifying movement of the work E upon the scale b;
P, spring to return D to zero.
Surface Plates and Cognate Forms. — Allied to the gauges are the
instruments for testing the truth of plane surfaces: the surface
plates, straight-edges and winding strips. The origination of plane
surfaces by scraping, until the mutual coincidence of three plates
is secured, was due to Whitworth. These surface plates (fig. 78, A)
fill an important place in workshop practice, since in the best
work plane surfaces are tested on them and corrected by scraping.
To a large extent the precision grinding machines have lessened
the value of scraping, but it is still retained for machine slides
and other work of a similar class. In the shops there are two
classes of surface plates : those employed daily about the shops,
the accuracy of which becomes impaired in time, and the standard
ZZZZ2W
i=o
h
4=*#=
C, Common square.
D, Square with adjustable blade.
Fig. 78.,
A , Surface plate ; o, protecting cover for ditto
when not in use.
B, Large ribbed straight-edge.
plate or plates employed for test and correction. Straight-edges
are derived from the surface plates, or may be originated like them.
The largest are made of cast-iron, ribbed and curved on one edge,
to prevent flexure, and provided /■
with feet (fig. 78, B). But the \J
smaller straight-edges are gener-
ally parallel, and a similar pair
constitutes " winding strips," by
which any twist or departure
fiom a plane surface is detected.
Squares, of which there are numer-
ous designs (fig. 78, C and D), are
straight-edges set at right angles.
Bevels or bevel-squares (fig. 79),
are straight-edges comprising a
stock and a blade, which are ad-
justable for angle in relation to
each other. Shop protractors often p IG _„
include a _ blade adjustable for A Common bevel.'
angle, forming a bevel with gradua- fi _ Universal bevel for testing
tions. Spint-levels test the non- j ow ane [ es
zontal truth of surfaces. Many
levels have two bubble tubes at right angles with each other, one
of which tests the truth of vertical faces. Generally levels have
flat feet, but some are made of V-section to fit over shafting. The
common plumb-bob is in frequent use for locating the vertical
position of centres not in the same horizontal plane. When a
TOOLE— TOP
47
plumb-bob is combined with a parallel straight-edge the term plumb-
rule is applied. It tests the truth of vertical surface more accurately
than a spirit-level. (J. G. H.)
TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832-1906), English actor, son
of an old employe of the East India Company who for many years
acted as toast-master in the City of London, was born in London
on the 1 2th of March 1832. He was educated at the City of
London School, and started life in a wine merchant's office; but
his natural propensity for comic acting was not to be denied, and
after some practice as an amateur with the City Histrionic Club,
he definitely took to the stage in 1852, appearing in Dublin as
Simmons in The Spitalfields Weaver. He gained experience in
the provinces, and in 1854 made his first professional appearance
in London at the St James's theatre, acting Samuel Pepys in
The King's Rival and Weazel in My Friend the Major. In 1857,
having just had a great success as Paul Pry, he met Henry
Irving in Edinburgh, and recommended him to go to' London;
and their friendship remained thenceforth of the closest kind.
In 1858 Toole joined Webster at the Adelphi, and established
his popularity as a comedian, among other parts creating Joe
Spriggins in Id on park francais. In 1868 he was engaged at
the Gaiety, appearing among other pieces in Thespis, the first
Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration. His fame was at its height
in 1874, when he went on tour to the United States, but he failed
to reproduce there the success he had in England. In 1879 he
took the " Folly " theatre in London, which he renamed " Toole's "
in 1882. He was constantly away in the provinces, but he pro-
duced here a number of plays: H. J. Byron's Upper Crust and
Auntie; Pinero's Hester's Mystery and Girls and Boys; burlesques
such as Paw Claudian, and, later, J. M. Barrie's Walker, London.
But his appearances gradually became fewer, and after 1893 he
was seen no more on the London stage, while his theatre was
pulled down shortly afterwards for an extension of Charing Cross
Hospital. He published his reminiscences in 1888. Toole
married in 1854; and the death of his only son in 1879, and later
of his wife and daughter, had distressing effects on his health;
attacks of gout, from 1886 onwards, crippled him, and ultimately
he retired to Brighton, where after a long illness he died on the
30th of July 1906. In his prime he was immensely popular,
and also immensely funny in a way which depended a good deal
on his tricks and delivery of words. He excelled in what may
be called Dickens parts — combining humour and pathos. He
was a good man of business, and left a considerable fortune,
out of which he made a number of bequests to charity and to
his friends. His genial and sympathetic nature was no less
conspicuous off the stage than on it.
TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-1885), American political leader,
was born near Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, on the
2nd of July 1810. He was educated at Franklin College (univer-
sity of Georgia), at Union College, Schenectady, New York,
from which he graduated in 1828, and at the law school of the
university of Virginia. He was admitted to the bar in 1830,
and served in the Georgia House of Representatives (1838,
1840-1841 and 1843-1844), in the Federal House of Represen-
tatives (1845-1853), and in the United States Senate (1853-
1861). He opposed the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War,
President Polk's Oregon policy, and the Walker Tariff of 1846.
In common with Alexander H. Stephens and Howell Cobb, he
supported the Compromise Measures of 1850, denounced the
Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and
helped to frame the famous Georgia platform (1850). His
position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850-
1860 has often been misunderstood. They disapproved of
secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle,
but because they considered it inexpedient. On the dissolution
of the Whig party Toombs went over to the Democrats. He
favoured the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the admission of Kansas
under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill (1858),
and on the 24th of June 1856 introduced in the Senate the
Toombs Bill, which proposed a constitutional convention in
Kansas under conditions which were acknowledged by various
anti-slavery leaders as fair, and which mark the greatest con-
cessions made by the pro-slavery senators during the Kansas
struggle. The bill did not provide for the submission of the
constitution to popular vote, and the silence on this point of the
territorial law under which the Lecompton Constitution of
Kansas was framed in 1857 was the crux of the Lecompton
struggle (see Kansas). In the presidential campaign of i860
he supported John C. Breckinridge, and on the 22nd of December,
soon after the election of Lincoln, sent a telegram to Georgia
which asserted that " secession by the 4th of March next should
be thundered forth from the ballot-box by the united voice of
Georgia." He delivered a farewell address in the Senate
(Jan. 7, 1861), returned to Georgia, and with Governor Joseph
E. Brown led the fight for secession against Stephens and
Herschel V.Johnson (181 2-1880). His influence was a most
powerful factor in inducing the "old-line Whigs " to support
immediate secession. After a short term as secretary of state in
President Davis's cabinet, he entered the army (July 21, 1861),
and served first as a brigadier-general in the Army of Northern
Virginia and after 1863 as adjutant and inspector-general of
General G. W. Smith's division of Georgia militia. He then spent
two years in exile in Cuba, France and England, but returned to
Georgia in 1867, and resumed the practice of law. Owing to his
refusal to take the oath of allegiance, he was never restored to the
full rights of citizenship. He died at his home in Washington,
Georgia, on the 15th of December 1885.
See Pleasant A. Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker,
Soldier, Sage (New York, 1892).
TOOTHWORT, the popular name for a small British plant of
curious form and growth, known botanically as Lathraea squa-
maria. It grows parasitically on roots, chiefly of hazel, in shady
places such as hedge sides. It consists of a branched whitish
underground stem closely covered with thick fleshy colourless
leaves, which are bent over so as to hide the under surface;
irregular cavities communicating with the exterior are formed
in the thickness of the leaf. On the inner wall of these chambers
are stalked hairs, which when stimulated by the touch of an
insect send out delicate filaments by means of which the insect
is killed and digested. The only portions that appear above
ground are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of
two-lipped dull purple flowers. The scales which represent the
leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground
around the plant. Lathraea is closely allied to another British
parasitic plant, broomrape (Orobanche) .
TOOWOOMBA, a town of Aubigny county, Queensland,
Australia, 76 m. by rail W. by N. of Ipswich, and 101 m. from
Brisbane. It is situated on the summit of the Great Dividing
Range, and is the centre of the rich pastoral and agricultural
district of Darling Downs. The chief buildings are the town-hall,
a large theatre, a school of arts and a library; the Christian
Brothers College and several handsome churches. The industries
are brewing, tanning, soap-boiling, flour-milling, malting, iron-
founding, saw-milling and jam-making. Vineyards are culti-
vated by a German colony and large quantities of wine are made.
The town received a municipal charter in i860, and during the
governorship of Lord Lamington (1896-1897) became the summer
residence of the governor and his staff. Pop. (1901), 9137;
within the five-mile radius, 14,087.
TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot), a toy consist-
ing of a body of conical, circular or oval shape with a point or
peg on which it turns or is made to whirl. The twisting or whirl-
ing motion is applied by whipping or lashing when it is a " whip-
ping top " or " peg-top," or by the rapid unwinding of a string
tightly wound round a head or handle. When the body is
hollow this results in a whirring noise, whence the name " hum-
ming top." Other kinds of tops are made as supports for coloured
disks which on revolving show a kaleidoscopic variation of
patterns. The top is also used in certain games of chance, when
it is generally known as a " teetotum." There are many references
to it in ancient classical literature. The Greek terms for the
toy are /3e/uj3t£, which was evidently the whipping or peg top
(Arist. Birds, 1461), and <7rp6/3iXo5, a humming top, spun by a
string (Plato, Rep. iv. 436 E.). In Homer {II. xiv. 413) the word
+8
TOPAZ— TOPEKA
CTpbftfios seems to point to the humming top. The Latin name
for the top was turbo. This word and the Greek ftdfifios are
sometimes translated by " top " when they refer to the
instrument used in the Dionysiac mysteries, which, when
whirled in the air by a string, produced a booming noise. This
was no doubt the equivalent of the " bull roarer " (q.v.). Strutt
(Games and Pastimes, 491) says that the top was known in
England as early as the 14th century. For the scientific
properties of the top see Gyroscope and Gyrostat.
This word must be distinguished from that signifying the highest
or uppermost part of anything. It appears to have meant origin-
ally a tuft or crest of hair, cf. Ger. Zopf, Du. top, Icel. topps, &c. ;
it is allied to Eng. " tap," a spike for a cask, and " tip," point.
Some etymologists have identified the two words, the toy being
so called from spinning on its top or tip, but the two German
forms seem to prove conclusively that the words are different.
TOPAZ, a mineral usually found in connexion with granitic
rocks and used, when fine, as a gem-stone. It is believed that
the topaz of modern mineralogists was unknown to the ancients,
and that the stone described under the name of TOirdftos, in
allusion to its occurrence on an island in the Red Sea known as
T07r&f 10s vrjcrot, was the mineral which is now termed chrysolite
or peridot (q.v.). The Hebrew pitdah, translated " topaz " in
the Old Testament, may also have been the chrysolite.
Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, usually with a
prismatic habit (figs. 1 and 2). Many of the crystals, like those
from Saxony and Siberia, are rich in faces, and present with the
prisms a complicated combination of pyramids and domes. The
faces of the prism-zone are usually striated vertically. Doubly-
terminated crystals are rare, and sometimes apparently hemi-
morphic. The mineral presents a perfect cleavage transverse
ff®
7*
^
1
*
i
1
1
1 !
1 M
•M
i i
l i
1 j
, ^
*-*- —
M
Fig. 1.
M
Fig. 2.
to the long axis of the prism, and the cleavage-plane often has a
pearly lustre. The chemical composition of the topaz has given
rise to much discussion, but it is now generally regarded as an
aluminium fluo-silicate having the formula Al 2 F 2 Si04. It was
shown by Professor S. L. Penfield and Mi- J. C. Minor that the
fluorine may be partially replaced by hydroxyl. When strongly
heated topaz suffers considerable loss of weight. Sir D. Brewster
found in topaz numerous microscopic cavities containing fluids,
some of which have received the names of brewsterlinite and
cryptolinite. Possibly some of the liquid inclusions may be
hydrocarbons.
The topaz, when pure, may be colourless, and if cut as a
brilliant has been mistaken for diamond. It has, too, the
same specific gravity, about 3-5. It is, however, greatly
inferior in hardness, the hardness of topaz being only 8; and it
has lower refractivity and dispersive powers: moreover, being an
orthorhombic mineral, it possesses double refraction. From
phenacite and from rock-crystal, for which it may be mistaken, it
is distinguished by being biaxial and by having a much higher
specific gravity. The topaz becomes electric by heating, by
friction or by pressure. Colourless limpid topazes are known in
Brazil as pingos d'agoa, or " drops of water," whilst in England
they pass in trade as " minas novas," from a locality in the
state of Minas Geraes in Brazil.
Coloured topazes usually present various shades of yellow, blue
or brown. The pleochroism is fairly marked, the colour of the
sherry-yellow crystals from Brazil being generally resolved by the
dichroscope into a brownish-yellow and a rose-pink. The colour
in many cases is unstable, and the brown topazes of Siberia are
specially liable to suffer bleaching by exposure to sunlight. In
1750 a Parisian jeweller named Dumelle discovered that the
yellow Brazilian topaz becomes pink on exposure to a moderate
heat, and this treatment has since been extensively applied, so
that nearly all the pink topaz occurring in jewelry has been
artificially heated. Such " burnt topaz " is often known as
" Brazilian ruby," a name applied also to the natural red topaz,
which, however, is excessively rare. " Brazilian sapphire " is
the term sometimes given to blue topaz, but the colour is usually
pale. The delicate green topaz has been incorrectly called
aquamarine, which is a name applicable only to the sea-green
beryl (q.v.). According to A. K. Coomaraswamy, yellow sapphire
is often sold as topaz in Ceylon, where yellow topaz is unknown,
whilst pink corundum is frequently called there " king topaz."
The topaz is cut on a leaden wheel, and polished with tripoli.
It is generally step-cut, or table-cut, but its beauty is best
developed when in the form of a brilliant. Cut topazes of
large size are known, and it is said that the great " Braganza
diamond " of Portugal is probably a topaz.
Topaz usually occurs in granitic and gneissose rocks, often in
greisen, and is commonly associated with cassiterite, tourmaline and
beryl. It seems to have been formed, in many cases, by pneumato-
lytic action. In the west of England it is found in Cornwall,
notably at St Michael's Mount and at Cligga Head near St Agnes.
It occurs also in Lundy Island. The finest British topaz is found
in the Cairngorm group of mountains in the central Highlands,
especially at Ben a Buird. Rolled pebbles occur in the bed of the
Avon in Banffshire. Beautiful, though small, crystals occur in
the drusy cavities of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in
Ireland. The famous topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein, near
Auerbach, in Saxony, yields pale yellow crystals, formerly cut for
jewelry, and it is said that these do not become pink on heating.
Fine topazes occur in Russia, at several localities in the Urals and
in the Adun-chalon Mountains, near Nerchinsk, in Siberia. A very
fine series from the Koksharov collection is in the British Museum.
Beautiful crystals of topaz are found in Japan, especially at Taka-
yama in the province of Mino, and at Tanokamiyama in Omi
province. Ceylon and Burma occasionally yield topazes. Brazil
is a famous locality, the well-known sherry-yellow crystals coming
from Ouro Preto, formerly called Villa Rica, the capital of Minas
Geraes, where they occur in a kaolinitic matrix, resulting from the
alteration of a mica-schist, which is regarded by Professor O. A.
Derby as a metamorphosed igneous rock. Topaz occurs in the
tin-drifts of New South Wales, especially in the New England
district; it has been discovered in the Coolgardie goldfield, West
Australia; and it is found also in the tinfields of Tasmania and on
Flinders Island in Bass's Strait. Fine topaz has been worked
near Pike's Peak in Colorado, and in San Diego county, California.
The mineral occurs in rhyolite at Nathrop in Chaffee county and
Chalk Mountain in Summit county, Colorado, and in trachyte
near Sevier Lake, Utah. The occurrence of topaz in these volcanic
rocks is very notable, and contrasts with its common occurrence
in granites. It is found in like manner in rhyolite at San Luis
Potosi in Mexico; and beautiful little limpid crystals accompany
stream-tin at Durango. Common topaz occurs in coarse crystals
at many localities. A columnar variety from the tin-districts of
Saxony and Bohemia, and from Mt Bischoff in Tasmania, is
known as pycnite (jtukvAs, dense) ; whilst a coarse opaque topaz
from granite near Falun, in Sweden, has been termed pyrophysa-
lite (irOp, fire; tfrmaa, to blow), in allusion to its behaviour when
heated.
" Oriental topaz " is the name sometimes given to yellow corun-
dum, a mineral readily distinguished from true topaz by superior
hardness and density. Yellow and smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn-
gorm, is often known as " Scotch topaz " or " Spanish topaz,"
according to its locality; but these, on the contrary, are inferior
in hardness and density. The chief differences between the three
minerals may be seen in the following table, in which they are
arranged in order of hardness, density and refractivity : —
Hardness ....
Specific gravity .
Refractive indices
Crystallization
Chemical composition
Scotch
Topaz.
7
2-6
i-54. i-55
Hexagonal
Si0 2
True
Topaz.
3'5
i-6i, 1-62
Orthorhombic
Al 2 F 2 Si0 4
Oriental
Topaz.
9
4
176, 177
Hexagonal
A1 2 3
(F. W. R.*)
TOPEKA, a city and the county-seat of Shawnee county,
Kansas, U.S.A., the capital of the state, situated on both sides of
TOPELIUS— TOPFFER
49
the Kansas river, in the east part of the state, about 60 m. W. of
Kansas City. Pop. (1900), 33,608, of whom 3201 were foreign-
born (including 702 Germans, 575 Swedes, 512 English, 407
Russians, 320 Irish, &c.) and 4807 were negroes; (1010, census),
43,684. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific and the
Missouri Pacific railways. The city is regularly laid out on a
fairly level prairie bench, considerably elevated above the river
and about 890 ft. above sea-level. Among its prominent build-
ings are the United States government building, the Capitol
(erected 1866-1903 at a cost of $3,200,589 and one of the best
state buildings in the country), the county court house, the
public library (1882), an auditorium (with a seating capacity
of about 5000), the Y.M.C.A. building, a memorial building,
housing historical relics of the state, and Grace Church Cathedral
(Protestant Episcopal). The city is the see of a Protestant
Episcopal bishop. In the Capitol are the library (about 6000
volumes) and natural history collections of the Kansas Academy
of Science, and the library (30,000 books, 94,000 pamphlets and
28,500 manuscripts) and collections of the Kansas State Historical
Society, which publishes Kansas Historical Collections (1875
sqq.) and Biennial Reports (1879 sqq.). The city is the seat of
Washburn (formerly Lincoln) College (1865), which took its
present name in 1868 in honour of Ichabod Washburn of Wor-
cester, Massachusetts, who gave it $25,000; in 1909 it had 783
students (424 being women). Other educational establishments
are the College of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal,
1861), for women, and the Topeka Industrial and Educational
Institute (1895), for negroes. In Topeka are the state insane
asylum, Christ's Hospital (1894), the Jane C. Stormont Hospital
and Training School for nurses (1895), the Santa Fe Railway
Hospital, the Bethesda Hospital (1906) and the St Francis
Hospital (1909). Topeka is an important manufacturing city.
Its factory product was valued in 1905 at $14,448,869. Natural
gas is piped from southern Kansas for manufacturing and
domestic use.
The first white settlement on the site of Topeka was made in
1852, but the city really originated in 1854, when its site was
chosen by a party from Lawrence. It was from the first a free-
state stronghold. More than one convention was held here in
Territorial days, including that which framed the Topeka
Constitution of 1855; and some of the meetings of the free-state
legislature chosen under that document (see Kansas) were also
held here. Topeka was made the temporary state capital under
the Wyandotte Constitution, and became the permanent capital
in 1861. It was first chartered by the pro-slavery Territorial
legislature in 1857, but did not organize its government until
1858 (see Lawrence). In 1881 it was chartered as a city of the
first class. The first railway outlet, the Union Pacific, reached
Eugene, now North Topeka, in 1865. The construction of the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe was begun here in 1868, and its
construction shops, of extreme importance to the city, were built
here in 1878. In 1880, just after the great negro immigration to
Kansas, the coloured population was 31 % of the total.
See F. W. Giles, Thirty Years in Topeka (Topeka, 1886).
TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [Zacharias] (1818-1898), Finnish
author, was born at Kuddnas, near Nykarleby, on the
14th of January 1818. He was the son of a doctor of
the same name, who was distinguished as the earliest collector
of Finnish folk-songs. Topelius became a student at Hel-
singfors in 1833, was made professor in 1863 and received
in succession all the academic distinctions open to him.
Quite early in his career he began to distinguish himself
as a lyric poet, with the three successive volumes of his
Heather Blossoms (1845-1854). The earliest of his historical
romances was The Duchess of Finland, published in 1850.
He was also editor-in-chief of the Helsingfors Gazette from
1841 to i860. In 1878 Topelius was allowed to withdraw from
his professional duties, but this did not sever his connexion
with the university; it gave him, however, more leisure for his
abundant and various literary enterprises. Of all the multi-
farious writings of Topelius, in prose and verse, that which has
enjoyed the greatest popularity is his Tales of a Barber-Surgeon,
episodes of historical fiction from the days of Gustavus II.
Adolphus to those of Gustavus III., treated in the manner of
Sir Walter Scott; the five volumes of this work appeared at
intervals between 1853 and 1867. Topelius attempted the
drama also, with most success in his tragedy of Regina von
Emmeritz (1854). Topelius aimed, with eminent but perhaps
pathetic success, at the cultivation of a strong passion of
patriotism in Finland. He died on the 13th of March 1898
at Helsingfors. Topelius was an exceptionally happy writer
for children, his best-known book being Lasning for bam.
His abundant poetry is graceful and patriotic, but does not
offer any features of great originality. (E. G.)
TOPETE, JUAN BAUPTISTA (1821-1885), Spanish naval
commander and politician, was born in Mexico on the 24th of
May 182 1. His father and grandfather were also Spanish
admirals. He entered the navy at the age of seventeen, cut out
a Carlist vessel in 1839, became a midshipman at twenty-two,
obtained the cross of naval merit for saving the life of a sailor ii?
1841 and became a lieutenant in 1845. He served on the West
Indian station for three years, and was engaged in repressing the
slave trade before he was promoted frigate captain in 1857. He
was chief of staff to the fleet during the Morocco War, 1859, after
which he got the crosses of San Fernando and San Hermenegildf.
Having been appointed chief of the Carrara arsenal at Cadiz, he
was elected deputy and joined the Union Liberal of O'Donnell
and Serrano. He was sent out to the Pacific in command of the
frigate " Blanca," and was present at the bombardment of
Valparaiso and Callao, where he was badly wounded, and in
other engagements of the war between Chile and Peru. On his
return to Spain, Topete was made port captain at Cadiz, which
enabled him to take the lead of the conspiracy in the fleet against
the Bourbon monarchy. He sent the steamer " Buenaventura "
to the Canary Isle for Serrano and the other exiles; and when
Prim and Sagasta arrived from Gibraltar, the whole fleet under
the influence of Topete took such an attitude that the people,
garrison and authorities of Cadiz followed suit. Topete took
part in all the acts of the revolutionary government, accepted the
post of marine minister, was elected a member of the Cortes of
1869, supported the pretensions of Montpensier, opposed the
election of Amadeus, sat in several cabinets of that king's reign,
was prosecuted by the federal republic of 1873 and again took
charge of the marine under Serrano in 1874. After the Restora-
tion Topete for some years held aloof, but finally accepted the
presidency of a naval board in 1877, and sat in the Senate as a
life peer until his death on the 29th of October 1885 at Madrid.
TOPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedes-
trian-journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva
on the 31st of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came
about 1 760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while
his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education
was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father.
But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so
he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession
of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in
Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his
marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey
in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular
practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were
described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes,
with sketches by the author — the first printed edition appeared
at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zig-
zag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through
many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres
at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death,
on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1834 he published an article
in the Bibliotheque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a
number of tales, commencing with the Bibliotheque de mon oncle
(1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the weil-
known volume which bears the title of Nouvelles genevoises.
He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics,
and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Geneve. Among
TOPHET— TORDENSKJOLD
5°
his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a
volume of artistic studies, the Reflexions et menus propos d'un
peintre genevois (1848).
Lives by A. Blondel and the abbe Relave (both published at
Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's Ecrivains nationaux
(Geneva, 1874) ; and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d'un alpiniste (Lausanne,
1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and
several chapters in Ste Beuve's Causeries du lundi, Verniers
portraits litteraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.)
TOPHET, or Topheth (nsnn), the name given in 2 Kings
xxiii. 10; Jer. vii. 31, to a spot in the valley of Ben Hinnom near
Jerusalem where the Hebrews in the time of Ahab and Manasseh
offered children to Molech and other heathen gods. Josiah
" defiled" it as part of his reforming activity, and it became a
place for the bestowal and destruction of refuse, and a synonym
for Gehenna (Isa. xxx. 3$ ; Jer. vii. 32).
The uncertain etymology of the word is discussed in the Ency.
Bib., s.v. " Molech," § 3, "Topheth."
TOPIARY, a term in gardening or horticulture for the cutting
and trimming of shrubs, such as cypress, box or yew, into regular
and ornamental shapes. It is usually applied to the cutting of
trees into urns, vases, birds and other fantastic shapes, which
were common at the end of the 17th century and through
the 18th, but it also embraces the more restrained art necessary
for the laying out of a formal garden. Yew and holly trees cut
into fantastic objects may still be seen in old-fashioned cottage
or farmhouse gardens in England. The Lat. topiarius meant an
ornamental or landscape gardener, and was formed from topia
(Gr. T07ros, place), a term specially employed for a formal kind of
landscape painting used as a mural decoration in Roman houses.
TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778), Anglican
divine, was born at Farnham, Surrey, and educated at West-
minster and Trinity College, Dublin. Although originally a
follower of Wesley, he in 1758 adopted extreme Calvinist opinions.
He was ordained in 1762 and became vicar of Harpford with
Fenn-Ottery, Devonshire, in 1766. In 1768 he exchanged to the
living of Broadhembury, Devonshire. He is chiefly known as a
writer of hymns and poems, including " Rock of Ages," and the
collections entitled Poems on Sacred Subjects (Dublin, 1759) and
Psalms and Hymns for Public, and Private Worship (London,
1776). His best prose work is the Historic Proof of the Doctrinal
Calvinism of the Church of England (London, 1774). Some
comments by Wesley upon Toplady's presentation of Calvinism
led to a controversy which was carried on with much bitter-
ness on both sides. Toplady wrote a venomous Letter to
Mr Wesley (1770), and Wesley repeated his comments in The
Consequence Proved (1 771), whereupon Toplady replied with
increased acridity in More Work for Mr Wesley (1772). From
1775 to 1778, having obtained leave of non-residence at
Broadhembury, he lived in London, and ministered at a
Calvinist church in Orange Street.
TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. rbvos, place, ypa<f>eiv, to write), a
description of a town, district or locality, giving details of its
geographical and architectural features. The term is also applied
in anatomy to the mapping out of the surface of the human
body, either according to a division based on the organs or parts
lying below certain regions, or on a superficial plotting out of
the body by anatomical boundaries and landmarks.
TORAN, the name in Hindustani (Skr. torana, from tor, pass)
of a sacred or honorific gateway in Buddhist architecture. Its
typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights
or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is
generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both
cross-piece and posts are usually sculptured.
XORBERNITE (or cupro-uranite), a mineral which is one of the
" uranium micas "; a hydrous uranium and copper phosphate,
Cu(U02) 2 (P04)2-|-i2H20. Crystals are tetragonal and have the
form of square plates, which are often very thin. There is a
perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and on
this face the lustre is pearly. The bright grass-green colour
is a characteristic feature of the mineral. The hardness is 25
and the specific gravity 3-5. The radio-activity of the mineral
is greater than that of some specimens of pitchblende. It was
first observed in 1772 at Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, but the
best examples are from Gunnislake near Calstock and Redruth
in Cornwall. The name torbenite is after Torbern Bergman:
chalcolite is a synonym. (L. J. S.)
TORCELLO, an island of Venetia, Italy, in the lagoons about
6 m. to the N. W. of Venice, belonging to the commune of Burano.
It was a flourishing city in the early middle ages, but now has
only a few houses and two interesting churches. The former
cathedral of S. Maria was founded in the 7th century. The
present building, a basilica with columns, dates from 864; the
nave was restored in 1008, in which year the now ruined octagonal
baptistery was built. It contains large mosaics of the 12th
century, strongly under Byzantine influence; those on the west
wall represent the Resurrection and Last Judgment. The
seats for the priests are arranged round the semicircular apse,
rising in steps with the bishop's throne in the centre — an arrange-
ment unique in Italy. Close by is S. Fosca, a church of the 12th
century, octagonal outside, with colonnades on five sides and a
rectangular interior intended for a dome which was never
executed, beyond which is a three-apsed choir. In the local
museum are four Mycenaean vases, one found in the island and
another on the adjacent island of Mazzorbo, proving direct
intercourse with the Aegean Sea in prehistoric times.
See R. M. Dawkins, in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1904), xxiv. 125.
TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. tortia, derived from
tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist), a light or illuminant that can
be carried in the hand, made of twisted tow, hemp or other
inflammable substance. Torches or " links " were, till the general
introduction of street lighting, necessary adjuncts for passengers
on foot or in carriages in towns at night, and many of the older
houses in London and elsewhere still retain the iron stands
outside their doors, in which the torches might be placed.
TORCHERE, a candelabrum mounted upon a tall stand of
wood or metal, usually with two or three lights. When it
was first introduced in France towards the end of the 17th
century the torchere mounted one candle only, and when the
number was doubled or tripled the improvement was regarded
almost as a revolution in the lighting of large rooms.
TORDENSKJOLD, PEDER (1 691-17 20), eminent Danish
naval hero, the tenth child of alderman Jan Wessel of Bergen, in
Norway, was born at Trondhjem on the 28th of October 1691.
Wessel was a wild unruly lad who gave his pious parents much
trouble. Finally he ran away from them by hiding in a ship
bound for Copenhagen, where the king's chaplain Dr Peder Jes-
persen took pity on the friendless lad, gratified his love for the
sea by sending him on a voyage to the West Indies, and finally
procured him a vacant cadetship. After further voyages,
this time to the East Indies, Wessel was, on the 7th of July
1711, appointed 2nd lieutenant in the royal marine and shortly
afterwards became the captain of a little 4-gun sloop " Ormen"
(The Serpent), in which he cruised about the Swedish coast
and picked up much useful information about the enemy.
In June 1712 he was promoted to a 20-gun frigate, against
the advice of the Danish admiralty, which pronounced him to
be too flighty and unstable for such a command. His dis-
criminating patron was the Norwegian admiral Lovendal,
who was the first to recognize the young man's ability as a
naval officer. At this period Wessel was already renowned for
two things: the audacity with which he attacked any Swedish
vessels he came across regardless of odds, and his unique seaman-
ship, which always enabled him to escape capture. The Great
Northern War had now entered upon its later stage, when Sweden,
beset on every side by foes, employed her fleet principally to
transport troops and stores to her distressed German provinces.
The audacity of Wessel impeded her at every point. He was
continually snapping up transports, dashing into the fjords where
her vessels lay concealed, and holding up her detached frigates.
In July 1714 he encountered a frigate which had been equipped
in England for the Swedes and was on its way to Gothenburg
under the command of an English captain. Wessel instantly
TOREADOR— TORENO
5i
attacked her but in the English captain he met his match.
The combat lasted all day, was interrupted by nightfall, and
renewed again indecisively the following morning. Wessel's
free and easy ways procured him many enemies in the Danish
navy. He was accused of unnecessarily endangering his
majesty's war-ships in the affairs with the frigate and he was
brought before a court-martial. But the spirit with which
he defended himself and the contempt he poured on his less
courageous comrades took the fancy of King Frederick IV.,
who cancelled the proceedings and raised Wessel to the rank of
captain. When in the course of 171 5 the return of Charles XII.
from Turkey to Stralsund put a new life into the jaded and
dispirited Swedish forces, Wessel distinguished himself in
numerous engagements off the Pomeranian coast and did the
enemy infinite damage by cutting out their frigates and destroy-
ing their transports. On returning to Denmark in the beginning
of 1716 he was ennobled under the title of " Tordenskjold "
(Thundershield). When in the course of 1716 Charles XII.
invaded Norway and sat down before the fortress of Fredrik-
shald, Tordenskjold compelled him to raise the siege and
retire to Sweden by pouncing upon the Swedish transport
fleet laden with ammunition and other military stores which
rode at anchor in the narrow and dangerous strait of Dynekil,
utterly destroying the Swedish fleet with little damage to him-
self. For this, his greatest exploit, he was promoted to the rank
of commander, but at the same time incurred the enmity of
his superior officer Admiral Gabel, whom he had omitted to
take into his confidence on the occasion. Tordenskjold's first
important command was the squadron with which he was
entrusted in the beginning of 17 17 for the purpose of destroying
the Swedish Gothenburg squadron which interrupted the com-
munications between Denmark and Norway. Owing to the
disloyalty of certain of his officers who resented serving under
the young adventurer, Tordenskjold failed to do all that was
expected of him. His enemies were not slow to take advantage
of his partial failure. The old charge of criminal recklessness
was revived against him at a second court-martial before which
he was summoned in 17 18; but his old patron Admiral U. C.
Gyldenlove again intervened energetically in his behalf and
the charge was quashed. In December 17 18 Tordenskjold
brought to Frederick IV. the welcome news of the death of
Charles XII. and was made a rear-admiral for his pains. Tor-
denskjold's last feat of arms was his capture of the Swedish
fortress of Marstrand, when he partially destroyed and partially
captured the Gothenburg squadron which had so long eluded him.
He was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. Tordenskjold
did not long survive the termination of the war. On the 20th
of November 1720 he was killed in a duel with a Livonian
colonel, Jakob Axel Stael von Holstein. Although, Dynekil
excepted, Tordenskjold's victories were of far less importance
than Sehested's at Stralsund and Gyldenlove's at Rtigen, he is
certainly, after Charles XII., the most heroic figure of the Great
Northern War. His courage was fully equal to the courage
of " The Lion of the North," but he lacked that absolute self-
command which gives to the bravery of Charles XII. its peculiar,
almost superhuman, character.
See Carstensen and Liitken, Tordenskjold (Copenhagen, 1887).
(R. N. B.)
TOREADOR, a Spanish word derived from torear, to engage
in a bull-fight, toro, a bull, Latin taurus, for one of the principal
performers in the national sport of bull-fighting '(q.v.).
TORELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900), Swedish geologist,
was born in Varberg on the 5th of June 1828. He was edu-
cated at Lund for the medical profession, but became interested
in zoological and geological studies, and being of independent
means he devoted himself to science. He gave his attention
first especially to the invertebrate fauna and the physical
changes of pleistocene and recent times. He studied the
glacial phenomena of Switzerland, Spitzbergen and Green-
land, making two Arctic expeditions in company with A. E.
Nordenskiold. In 1866 he became professor of zoology and
geology in the University at Lund, and in 187 1 he was appointed
chief of the Swedish Geological Survey. In the latter capacity
he laboured until 1897. His published contributions, though of
much interest and importance, were not large, but his influence
in promoting a knowledge of geology in Sweden, was of great
service. His Arctic experiences enabled him to interpret
the method of origin of the drift deposits in northern Europe,
and to show that they were largely of glacial or fluvio-glacial
origin. In the English drifts he recognized many boulders of
Scandinavian origin. He died on the nth of September 1900.
His publications include: Bidrag till Spitzbergens molluskfauna
(1859); and memoirs to accompany several sheets of the Geological
Survey map of Sweden.
Obituary with portrait, in Geo!. Mag (May 1902), reproduced in
abridged form from memoir by L. Holmstrom, in Geologiska forenin-
gen i Stockholm 's forhandlingar, xxiii.
TORENO, JOSE MARIA QUIEPO DE LLANO RUIZ DE
SARAVIA, Count of (1786-1843), Spanish politician and his-
torian, was born at Oviedo on the 25th of November 1786. His
family was wealthy and belonged to the most ancient nobility
of Asturias. His mother, Dominga Ruiz de Saravia, had
property in the province of Cuenca. The son received a better
education in classics, mathematics and modern languages
than was usual at that time. The young viscount of Matarrosa,
the title he bore in his father's lifetime, was introduced
to the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau by the abbot
of the Benedictine house of Monserrat in Madrid. He was
present at Madrid when the city rose against Murat on the 2nd
of May 1808, and took part in the struggle which was the
beginning of the Peninsular War. From Madrid he escaped
to Asturias, and on the 30th of May he embarked in a Jersey
privateer at Gijon, with other delegates, in order to ask for the
help of England against the French. The deputation was
enthusiastically received in London. By the 30th of December
he was back in Asturias, his father having died in the interval.
During the Peninsular War he saw some service in the first
occupation of Asturias by the French, but he was mainly occu-
pied by his duties as a member of the Cortes. In 1809 he was at
Seville, where one of his uncles was a member of the central
Junta. In the following year he was a leader of the party which
compelled the Regency to summon the Cortes — to which he was
elected by Asturias early in 181 1 though he wanted some months
of the legal age of twenty-five. His election was opposed by
some of his own relatives who did not share his advanced opinions,
but it was ratified by the Cortes. Toreno was conspicuous
among the well-meaning men who framed the constitution of
181 2, which was made as if it was meant for some imaginary
republic and not for Catholic and monarchical Spain. When
Ferdinand VII. returned from prison in France in 1814 Toreno
foresaw a reaction, and put himself out of reach of the king.
He was the more an object of suspicion because his brother-
in-law, Porlier, perished in a wild attempt to support the con-
stitution by force. Toreno remained in exile till the outbreak
of the revolution of 1820. Between that year and 1823 he was
in Spain serving in the restored Cortes, and experience had
abated his radical ardour. . When the French intervened in 1823
Toreno had again to go into exile, and remained abroad till the
king published the amnesty of the 15th of October 1832. He
returned home in July 1833, but remained on his estates till
the king's death on the 29th of September. As hereditary
standard bearer of Asturias (Alferez Mayor) it fell to him to
proclaim the young queen, Isabella II. In 1834 his now
moderate opinions pointed him out to the queen regent, Maria
Christina, as a useful man for office. In June 1834 he was
minister of finance, and became prime minister on the 7th of
June. His tenure of the premiership lasted only till the 14th of
September of the same year, when the regent's attempt to retain
a practically despotic government under a thin constitutional
veil broke down. The greater part of the remainder of his
life was spent in voluntary exile, and he died in Paris on the
1 6 th of September 1843. As a politician he felt the need for a
revision of the worn out despotism which ruled till 1808, but he
was destitute of any real political capacity. Toreno is chiefly
remembered as the author of the History of the Rising, War
52
TORENO— TORONTO
and Revolution of Spain, which he began between 1823 and
183 2 and published in 1836-1838 in Paris. As a work of military
criticism it is not of high value, and Toreno was prejudiced in
favour of his colleagues of the Cortes, whose errors and ex-
cesses he shared in and excused. The book is, however, written
in excellent Castilian, and was compiled with industry. It is
worth consulting as an illustration of the time in which the author
lived, as a patriotic Spanish view of the war, and for the pro-
minence it gives to the political side of the Peninsular War,
which he justly treated as a revolution.
A biography by Don Antonio de Cueto is prefixed to the reprint
of the Levantamiento giterra y revolution de Espana, in vol. lxiv.
of the Biblioteca de autores espanoles of Rivadeneyra (Madrid
1846-1880).
TORENO, QUEIPO DE LLANO Y GAYOSO DE, Count
(1840-1890), Spanish politician, son of the preceding, was
born in Madrid in 1840. He was educated at the Madrid
Institute and University, entered parliament in 1864 as a
Moderado, and sat in all the Cortes of Queen Isabella's reign
as a deputy for his ancestral province, Asturias. Loyal to the
Bourbons all through the revolution, he nevertheless became a
deputy in the Cortes of 1871-1873, and founded an Alphonsist
paper, El Tiempo, in 1873. When the Restoration took place,
its first cabinet made Count de Toreno mayor of the capital,
and in 1875 minister of public works, in which capacity he im-
proved the public libraries, museums, academies and archives,
and caused many important works to be published, includ-
ing the Cartas de Indias. In 1879 he became minister for
foreign affairs, in 1880 president of the House of Deputies, in
1884 again governor of Madrid, and in 1885 again president
of the House of Deputies. During the reign of Alphonso XII.
and the first years of the regency of Queen Christina Count de
Toreno was one of the most prominent Conservative leaders,
and was often consulted by the Crown. He died on the 31st
of January 1890. He was a patron of the turf, and established
a race-course in Madrid, where the first races took place in the
reign of Alphonso XII.
TORGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.E. of
Leipzig and 26 m. S.E. of Wittenberg by rail. Pop. (1905),
12,299. Its most conspicuous building is the Schloss Hartenfels,
on an island in the Elbe, which was built, or at least was finished,
by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick the Magnanimous.
This castle, which is now used as a barracks, is one of the largest
Renaissance buildings in Germany. It was for some time the
residence of the electors of Saxony and contains a chapel con-
secrated by Martin Luther. The town hall, a 16th-century
building, houses a collection of Saxon antiquities. Torgau
has two Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church.
One of the former, the Stadt Kirche, contains paintings by
Lucas Cranach and the tomb of Catherine von Bora, the wife of
Luther. The chief industries of the town are the manufacture
of gloves, carriages, agricultural machinery, beer and bricks;
there is a trade in grain both on the Elbe and by rail. The
fortifications, begun in 1807 by order of Napoleon, were dis-
mantled in 1889-1891. In the vicinity is the royal stud farm of
Graditz.
Torgau is said to have existed as the capital of a distinct
principality in the time of the German king Henry I., but early
in the 14th century it was in the possession of the margraves
of Meissen and later of the electors of Saxony, who frequently
resided here. The town came into prominence at the time of
the Reformation. In 1526 John, elector of Saxony, Philip,
landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes formed a
league against "the Roman Catholics, and the Torgau articles,
drawn up here by Luther and his friends in 1530, were the
basis of the confession of Augsburg. Torgau is particularly
celebrated as the scene of a battle fought on the 3rd of November
1760, when Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians (see
Seven Years' War). In January 1814 Torgau was taken by
the Germans after a siege of three months and it was formally
ceded to Prussia in 1815.
See Grulich and Burger, Denkwurdigkeiten der altsachsischett
Residenz Torgau aus der Zeit der Reformation (Torgau, 1855) ; Knabe,
Geschichte der Stadt Torgau bis zur Reformation (Torgau, 1880) ;
and the publications of the Altertumverein tu Torgau (Torgau,
1884 sqq.).
TORNADO (Span., tornada, a turning about, cf. "turn"),
a local whirlwind of extreme violence, usually formed within a
thunderstorm. In appearance it consists of a funnel-shaped
cloud, depending from the mass of storm-cloud above, and when
fully developed tapering downwards to the earth. Besides its
whirling motion, a tornado has an advancing movement of
from 20 to 40 m. an hour — and along its own narrow path it
carries destruction. Its duration is usually from half an hour
to an hour. Tornadoes are most common in America, espe-
cially in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern states; in Europe
and elsewhere they are comparatively rare. Owing to their
association with thunderstorms they generally occur in warm
weather. A tornado is the result of a condition of local in-
stability in the atmosphere, originating high above the earth.
A current of air is induced to ascend with a rapid spiral motion
round a central core of low pressure. The moisture in the
ascending air is condensed by cooling both as it ascends and as
it expands into the low-pressure core. The cloud-funnel appears
to grow downwards because the moisture in the air is condensed
more rapidly than the air itself, following a spiral course, ascends.
TORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora, on the
right bank of the river Duero (Douro), and on the Zamora-
Medina del Campo railway. Pop. (1900), 8379. Toro is an
ancient fortified town, with picturesque narrow streets, among
which are many medieval churches, convents and palaces,
besides modern schools and public buildings. A fine bridge
of twenty-two arches spans the river. The cathedral church
is Romanesque; it dates from the 12th century but has been
partially restored. The palace of the marquesses of Santa
Cruz was the meeting place of the Cortes of 1371, 1442 and
1505, which made Toro and its code of laws celebrated. Toro
is first mentioned in documents of the 10th century. It played
an important part in the development of the kingdoms of Leon
and Castile and in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors.
TORONTO, the capital of the province of Ontario, and the
second largest city in the Dominion of Canada, situated on
the northern shore of Lake Ontario, almost due north from the
mouth of the Niagara river. It lies on a plateau gradually
ascending from the lake shore to an altitude of 220 ft., and
covers an area of nearly 20 sq. m. The river Don flows
through the eastern part of the city, and the river Humber
forms its western limit. The fine bay in front of the city,
affording a safe and commodious harbour, is formed by an
island stretching along the south of it. The city is well laid
out for the most part, the streets crossing each other at right
angles; Yonge Street, the chief artery, running north from the
bay, was constructed as a military road in 1796, and extends
under the same name for upwards of 30 m. to Lake Simcoe. It
constitutes the dividing line of the city, the cross streets being
called east or west according to the side of it they are on.
Toronto is the seat of government for the province, and
contains the parliament buildings, the lieutenant-governor's
residence, the courts of law and the educational departmental
buildings. The parliament buildings are situated in Queen's
Park, almost in the centre of the city, and are an imposing
structure of red. sandstone in the neo-Greek style built at great
cost. They are shortly to be enlarged, as the needs of the
province have outgrown them. A little distance to the west
stand the university buildings, the central one being a splendid
piece of architecture in the Norman style. Stretching in a semi'
circle round the broad campus are the library, the medical
building, the biology building and museum, the school of practical
science, the geology and chemistry buildings and the convoca-
tion hall, their architecture varying very greatly, beauty having
been sacrificed to more practical considerations; the magnetic
observatory is also in the grounds, but is overshadowed by some
of the more recent erections. It is one of the meteorological
TORPEDO
53
stations established by the British government on the recom-
mendation of the Royal Society in 1840 and is now maintained
by the Dominion government. The university of Toronto,
for the support of which the province is responsible, includes
faculties of arts, science and medicine, in the teaching of which
it is strictly secular. But near at hand and in full affiliation
with the university are Victoria College (Methodist), Wycliffe
College (Anglican), Knox College (Presbyterian) and St Michael's
College (Roman Catholic), wherein courses in divinity are given
and degrees conferred. Victoria College, likewise, provides a
course in arts, but none in science. Trinity College (Anglican),
though some distance away, is also affiliated with the univer-
sity, and her students enjoy its full advantages. Besides the
university, Toronto is remarkably rich in educational institu-
tions. Upper Canada College, founded in 1829, in many respects
resembles one of the English public schools. It has over 300
students. St Andrew's College, also for boys, is a more recent
establishment, and has about the same number of pupils.
There are three large collegiate institutes, having some 300 to
600 pupils each, and in addition a number of schools for girls,
such as Havergal College and Westminster College. Osgoode
Hall, a stately structure in the heart of the city, houses the
higher courts of law and appeal, and also a nourishing law school.
The city hall and court-house is one of the finest civic build-
ings in North America. It is in the Romanesque style, and
accommodates all the civic offices, the board of education, the
police and county courts, &c. Many of the churches are worthy
examples of good architecture.
Toronto is essentially a residential city. The houses of the
better class stand separate, not in long rows, and have about
them ample lawns and abundant trees. It is consequently a
widespread city, the length from east to west approximating
ten miles. An electric railway system provides means of com-
munication. There are many parks, ranging in size from
Carlton Park of one acre to High Park (375 acres) and Island
Park (389), the latter being across the harbour and constitut-
ing the favourite resort of the people during the summer. In
Exhibition Park there is held annually an industrial and agri-
cultural exhibition that has grown to great magnitude. It lasts
a fortnight in late summer. It is a municipal enterprise and
the profits belong to the city.
The population in 1907, as shown by the police census,
exceeded 300,000. The government of the city is vested in a
council consisting of the mayor and four controllers elected
annually and eighteen aldermen (three from each of the six wards
into which the city is divided). The council as a whole is the
legislative body, while the board of control is the executive
body, and as such is responsible for the supervision of all matters
of finance, the appointment of officials, the carrying on of
public works, and the general administration of the affairs of
the city, except the departments of education and of police,
the first being under the control of the board of education,
elected annually by the citizens, and the latter under the
board of police commissioners, consisting of the mayor, the
county judge and the police magistrate.
Toronto is one of the chief manufacturing centres of the
dominion; agricultural machinery, automobiles, bicycles, cotton
goods, engines, furniture, foundry products, flour, smoked meats,
tobacco, jewelry, &c, are flourishing industries, and the list is
constantly extending. The situation of the city is favourable
to commerce, and the largest vessels on the lakes can use its
harbour. It is the outlet of a rich and extensive agricultural
district, and throughout the season of navigation lines of steamers
ply between Toronto and the other lake ports on both the
Canadian and American sides, the route of some of them
extending from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake Superior.
Railway communication is complete, three great trunk lines
making the city a terminal point, viz. the Grand Trunk, the
Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern.
As a financial centre Toronto has made remarkable advance.
The transactions on the stock exchange rival those of Montreal.
The Bank of Commerce has its headquarters here, as have also
the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Toronto, the Standard
Traders, Imperial, Sovereign, Dominion, Crown, United Empire,
Sterling and other banks.
The name of the city is of Indian origin, meaning " a place of
meeting," the site in the days before the coming of the white
man being an established rendezvous among the neighbouring
Indian tribes. It first appears in history in 1749 as a centre of
trade when the French built a small fort and started a trading
establishment called Fort Rouille. Before long, however,
British traders came up from the south and entered into active
rivalry with the French, and in 1793 the fort was burned by
the latter to prevent its occupation by their foes. A year later
Governor Simcoe transferred the seat of government of the new
province of Upper Canada from the town of Newark at the
mouth of the Niagara River to Toronto, giving the new capital
the name of York, in honour of the second son of George III.
Under its new name it made slow progress as the surrounding
country was cleared and settled. The entrance to the harbour
was guarded by two blockhouses; provision was made for
barracks and garrison stores; buildings were erected for the
legislature; and there the members of parliament, summoned
by royal proclamation to " meet us in our provincial parliament
in our town of York," assembled on the 1st of June 1797.
Sixteen years later the population numbered only 456. The
town was twice sacked in the war of 181 2. General Dearborn
captured it at the head of a force of upwards of 2000. On their
advance to the outworks of the garrison the magazine of the
fort exploded, whether by accident or design, killing many of
the invaders. The halls of legislature and other buildings were
burnt and the town pillaged. On the restoration of peace the
work of creating a capital for Upper Canada had wellnigh to
begin anew. The organization of Upper Canada College in
1830, with a staff of teachers nearly all graduates of Cambridge,
gave a great impetus to the city and province. In 1834 the
population of York numbered fully 10,000; and an act of the
provincial legislature conferred on it a charter of incorporation,
with a mayor, aldermen and councilmen. Under this charter
it was constituted a city with the , name of Toronto. Since
that time the progress of the city has been rapid and substantial,
the population doubling every twenty years. In 1885 the
total assessment was $69,000,000; in 1895 $146,000,000 and in
1906 $167,411,000, the rate of taxation being 185 mills.
TORPEDO. In 1805 Robert Fulton demonstrated a new
method of destroying ships by exploding a large charge of
gunpowder against the hull under water. No doubt then
remained as to the effectiveness of this form of attack when
successfully applied; it was the difficulty of getting the torpedo,
as it was called, to the required position which for many years
retarded its progress as a practical weapon of naval warfare.
Attempts were first made to bring the explosive in contact with
the vessel by allowing it to drift down to her by the action of
tide or current, and afterwards to fix it against her from some
form of diving boat, but successive failures led to its restriction
for a considerable period to the submarine mine (q.v.) in which
the explosive is stationary and takes effect only when the ship
itself moves over or strikes the charge. Used in this way, it
is an excellent deterrent to hostile warships forcing a harbour.
Spar or Outrigger Torpedo. — The limitations attached to the
employment of submarine mines, except for coast defence,
revived the idea of taking the torpedo to the ship instead of
waiting for the latter to gain some exact point which she might
very possibly avoid. This first took practical shape in the spar
or outrigger torpedo. This consisted of a charge of explosive
at the end of a long pole projecting from the bow of a boat,
the pole being run out and immersed on arriving near the object.
Directly the charge came in contact with the hull of the ship it
was exploded by an electric battery in the boat. If the boat
was not discovered and disabled while approaching, the chances
were favourable to success and escape afterwards. Against a
vigilant enemy it was doubtless a forlorn hope, but to brave
men the venture offered considerable attractions.
Frequent use of this spar or outrigger torpedo was made during
54
TORPEDO
the American Civil War. A notable instance was the destruction
of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " at the end of October
1864. On this mission Lieut. Cushing took a steam launch
equipped with an outrigger torpedo up the Roanoke River, in
which lay the " Albemarle." On arriving near the ship Cushing
found her surrounded by logs, but pushing his boat over them,
he immersed the spar and exploded his charge in contact with
the " Albemarle " under a heavy fire. Ship and launch sank
together, but the gallant officer jumped overboard, swam away
and escaped. Submerged boats were also used for similar
service, but usually went to the bottom with their crews.
During the war between France and China in 1884 the " Yang
Woo " was attacked and destroyed by an outrigger torpedo.
Locomotive Torpedoes. — Though the spar torpedo had scored
some successes, it was mainly because the means of defence
against it at that time were inefficient. The ship trusted solely
to her heavy gun and rifle fire to repel the attack. The noise,
smoke, and difficulty of hitting a small object at night with a
piece that could probably be discharged but once before the boat
arrived, while rifle bullets would not stop its advance, favoured
the attack. When a number of small guns and electric lights
were added to a ship's equipment, success with an outrigger
torpedo became nearly, if not entirely, impossible. Attention
was then turned in the direction of giving motion to the torpedo
and steering it to the required point by electric wires worked
from the shore or from another vessel; or, dispensing with any
such connection, of devising a torpedo which would travel under
water in a given direction by means of self-contained motive
power and machinery. Of the former type are the Lay, Sims-
Edison and Brennan torpedoes. The first two — electrically
steered by a wire which trails behind the torpedo— have in-
sufficient speed to be of practical value, and are no longer used.
The Brennan torpedo, carrying a charge of explosive, travels
under water and is propelled by unwinding two drums or
reels of fine steel wire within the torpedo. The rotation of
these reels is communicated to the propellers, causing the
torpedo to advance. The ends of the wires are connected
to an engine on shore to give rapid unwinding and
increased speed to the torpedo. It is steered by vary-
ing the speed of unwinding the two wires. This tor-
pedo was adopted by the British war office for harbour
defence and the protection of narrow channels.
Uncontrolled Torpedoes.— The objection of naval
officers to have any form of torpedo connected by wire
to their ship during an action, impeding her free move-
ment, liable to get entangled in her propellers and
perhaps exploding where not desired — disadvantages
which led them to discard the Harvey towing torpedo
many years ago — has hitherto prevented any navy from
adopting a controlled torpedo for its sea-going fleet. The
last quarter of the 19th century saw, however, great
advances in the equipment of ships with locomotive torpedoes of
the uncontrolled type. The Howell may be briefly described,
as it has a special feature of some interest. Motive power is
provided by causing a heavy steel fly-wheel inside the torpedo
to revolve with great velocity. This is effected by a small special
engine outside operating on the axle. When sufficiently spun
up, the axle of the flywheel is connected with the propeller
shafts and screws which drive the torpedo, so that on entering
the water it is driven ahead and continues its course until the
power stored up in the flywheel is exhausted. Now when a
torpedo is discharged into the sea from a ship in motion, it has
a tendency to deflect owing to the action of the passing water.
The angle of deflexion will vary according to the speed of the
ship, and is also affected by other causes, such as the position
in the ship from which the torpedo is discharged, and its own
angle with the fine of keel. Hence arise inaccuracies of shooting;
but these do not occur with this torpedo, for the motion of the
flywheel, acting as a gyroscope — the principle of which applied
to the Whitehead torpedo is described later — keeps this torpedo
on a straight course. This advantage, combined with simplicity
in construction, induced the American naval authorities at one
time to contemplate equipping their fleet with this torpedo, for
they had not, up to within a few years ago, adopted any loco-
motive torpedo. A great improvement in the torpedo devised
by Mr Whitehead led them, however, definitely to prefer the
latter and to discontinue the further development of the Howell
system.
The Whitehead torpedo is a steel fish-shaped body which
travels under water at a high rate of speed, being propelled by
two screws driven by compressed air. It carries a large charge
of explosive which is ignited on the torpedo striking any hard
substance, such as the hull of a ship. The body is divided into
three parts. The foremost portion or head contains the explo-
sive — usually wet gun-cotton — with dry primer and mechanical
igniting arrangement; the centre portion is the air chamber
or reservoir, while the remaining part or tail carries the engines,
rudders, and propellers besides the apparatus for controlling
depth and direction. This portion also gives buoyancy to the
torpedo.
When the torpedo is projected from a ship or boat into the
water a lever is thrown back, admitting air into the engines
causing the propellers to revolve and drive the torpedo ahead.
It is desirable that a certain depth under water should be main-
tained. An explosion on the surface would be deprived of the
greater part of its effect, for most of the gas generated would
escape into the air. Immersed, the water above confines the
liberated gas and compels it to exert all its energy against the
bottom of the ship. It is also necessary to correct the tendency
to rise that is due to the torpedo getting lighter as the air is
used up, for compressed air has an appreciable weight. This
is effected by an ingenious apparatus long maintained secret.
The general principle is to utilize the pressures due to different
depths of water to actuate horizontal rudders, so that the
torpedo is automatically directed upwards or downwards as
its tendency is to sink or rise.
The efficiency of such a torpedo compared with all previous types
was clearly manifest when it was brought before the maritime
states by the inventor, Whitehead, and it was almost universally
adopted. The principal defect was want of speed — which at first
Speed Z9 Knots to 800 Metres
Charge — 133 Lbs wet Gun Cotton
!Heieht-....llbO Lbs.
18-INCH TORPEDO
fc
« n
Speed 30 Knots to GOO Yds.
Charge~..H5 LbsofVlet GunCoH-on 14-INCH TORPEDO.
Weight— 706 Lbs
l4 - 7 021— *!
FlG. I. — Diagrams of 14- and 18-in. Torpedoes,
did not exceed 10 knots an hour — but by the application of Brother-
hood's 3-cylinder engine the speed was increased to 18 knots—
a great advance. From that time continuous improvements have
resulted in speeds of 30 knots and upwards for a short range being
obtained. For some years a torpedo 14 ft. long and 14 in. in
diameter was considered large enough, though it had a very limited
effective range. For a longer range a larger weapon must be
employed capable of carrying a greater supply of air. To obtain
this, torpedoes of 18 in. diameter, involving increased length and
weight, have for some time been constructed, and have taken the
place of the smaller torpedo in the equipment of warships. This
advance in dimensions has not only given a faster and steadier
torpedo, but enabled such a heavy charge of gun-cotton to be
carried that its explosion against any portion of a ship would inevit-
ably either sink or disable her. The dimensions, shape, &c, of the 14-
and 18-in. torpedoes are shown in fig. 1. A limited range was
still imposed by the uncertainty of its course under water. The
speed of the ship from which it was discharged, theangle with her
keel at which it entered the water, and the varying velocity of
impulse, tended to error of flight, such error being magnified the
farther the path of the torpedo was prolonged. Hence 800 yds.
was formerly considered the limit of distance within which the
torpedo should be discharged at sea against an object from a ship
in motion.
In these circumstances, though improvements in the manufacture
of steel and engines allowed of torpedoes of far longer range being
TORPEDO
55
made (the fastest torpedo up to 1898 having a speed of 29 knots
for 800 yds.), it was of no advantage to make them, as they could
not be depended upon to run in a straight line from a stationary
point for more than 800 yds., while from a ship in motion good
practice could only be ensured at a reduced range. It was obvious,
therefore, that to increase the effective range of the torpedo, these
errors of direction must be overcome by some automatic steering
arrangement. Several inventors turned their attention to the
subject, nearly all of whom proposed to utilize the principle of the
gyroscope for the purpose. The first which gave any satisfactory
results was an apparatus devised by Ludwig Obry — an engineer
in Austria — and tried by the Italian government about 1896.
These trials demonstrated the feasibility of accurately and auto-
matically steering a torpedo in a direct line by this means. Messrs
Whitehead & Co., of Fiume, then acquired the invention, and after
exhaustive experiments produced the apparatus which' is now
fitted to every torpedo made. It is based on the principle that
a body revolving on a free axis tends to preserve its plane of rotation.
A gyroscope with plane of rotation parallel to the vertical axis of
the torpedo will have an angular motion if the torpedo is diverted
from its original course. This angular motion is employed to actuate
the steering mechanism by operating an air motor connected
with the rudders, and keeping the torpedo in the line of discharge.
The apparatus consists of a flywheel caused to rotate by a spring,
the barrel on which the latter is wound having a segmental wheel
which gears into a toothed pinion spindle of the flywheel. Owing
to the diameter of the segment being much greater than the pinion,
a rapid rotatory motion is imparted. The spring is wound up by a
key from outside the torpedo, and kept in tension until the pro-
jectile is discharged, when the spring is released by the air lever
being thrown back, which admits air to the engine; the gyroscope
is then freed and set in motion with its plane in the plane of the
vertical axis of the torpedo as it was in the launching tube.
Assuming now that the course of the torpedo is diverted by any
cause, its axis will move or perform a certain angular motion with
regard to the plane of the flywheel, which will have the same
result as if we consider the conditions reversed, i.e. as if the plane
of rotation of the flywheel were altered and that of the axis of the
torpedo remained the same. The axis of the flywheel performs
a relative angular motion which it imparts to a crank actuating
a servo-motor worked by compressed air, and connected with the
rudders of the torpedo, moving them in the opposite direction
to that in which the torpedo was diverted from its original course.
Thus all inaccuracies of flight due to errors of adjustment, mis-
calculation of deflexion, or even damage to some part, are elimin-
ated. As long as the gyroscope is in good order the torpedo is
bound to run in the line it was pointing when the flywheel was
started. It is placed in the after-body of the torpedo, as indicated
in fig. 2.
limited by the strength of the engines and other parts. Improve-
ments in steel manufacture have permitted the use of much higher
pressures of air and the construction of air-chambers able to with-
stand the pressure of 2000 lb to the sq. in. with the same weight of
air-chamber. This has enabled increased range without reduction
in speed to be attained, or conversely, increased speed at shorter
ranges. By improvement in the engines which are now of the
Brotherhood 4-cylinder central crank type further gains have
been effected.
Having reached the limit of pressure and endurance of air-
chambers with present materials without undue increase of weight,
the designer had to seek additional energy in another direction.
Now the energy obtainable from a given weight of compressed air
is dependent upon the volume of air available at the working
pressure of the engines. At a constant pressure this volume of
air is proportionate to its absolute temperature. If then the air
be stored cold and highly heated before delivery to the engine
the available energy from a given weight will be greatly increased.
By this means we obtain the equivalent of a larger and heavier
air-chamber without the increased weight such would involve.
As originally used a quantity of hydrocarbon fuel was placed in
the air-vessel. Upon discharging the torpedo this fuel was; auto-
matically ignited and the contents of the air-chamber were heated.
Unless, however, the combustion could be regulated there were
serious risks of abnormal pressures, of overheating and weakening
the air-vessel. Devices have been applied to overcome this liability,
and other methods devised to obtain the same result.
By the use of heating and thereby increasing the volume of air
in proportion to the rise of temperature the extra volume will
allow of an increased speed for a given range or a greater range
without increase of speed. The limit to the development of this
system seems to be the temperature the materials will stand, but
even at this early stage it has added several knots to the speed of
this wonderful weapon.
Torpedo Carriages and Discharge. — As no gun which is ineffi-
ciently mounted can give good results, so the best torpedo is valueless
without a good carriage or system of discharge. In the darly days
of the Whitehead, discredit came upon it because the importance
of this was not sufficiently realized; and an erratic course under
water was in nine cases out of ten due to a crude method of dis-
charge. A delicate piece of mechanism was dropped into the water
from a height of several feet, and naturally suffered Internal derange-
ment. Gun-ports were then used for the purpose, but now a special
orifice is made, to which the torpedo carriage is fitted with a ball-
and-socket joint — forming a water-tight aperture— so that this
carriage or tube may be only 2 or 3 ft. above the water-line. The
ball-and-socket joint enables it also to have a considerable angle
of training. Originally the torpedo was pushed out by a rod
acted upon by compressed air, in which case the carriage was a
Fig. 2. — Arrangement
The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo has thus been enormously
increased, and more accurate practice can now be made at
2000 yds. than was formerly possible at 800 yds. This adds con-
siderably to the chances of torpedrj-boats attacking ships, even in
day-time, at sea or at anchor, and will render further protection
necessary against this weapon. Against a ship in motion there is
still, however, the calculation as to her speed and the distance she
will travel before the torpedo reaches her. Should this be mis-
calculated, an increased range for torpedoes will magnify the error.
For instance, a 30-knot torpedo will travel 1000 yds. in a minute.
If aimed at a ship on the beam assumed to be steaming 15 knots
an hour, to reach her when 1000 yds. distant the- torpedo must
be discharged at a point 500 yds. ahead of her. But if the ship
is actually steaming 12 knots, she will have travelled only 400 yds.
in the minute, and the torpedo will be 100 yds. in advance of
her. If discharged at a range of 500 yds., such a miscalculation
causes an error of only 50 yds. or 150 ft. But if the object is
300 tt. long, and her centre was taken as the target, her bow would
be just at the spot the torpedo would reach in thirty seconds. It
would seem, therefore, that increased velocity of torpedo is necessary
before the full advantages of the gyroscope can be realized. Now
the range of the torpedo is entirely dependent upon the store of
energy which can be carried; upon, therefore, the capacity of the
air reservoir, the maximum pressure it can stand, and on the effici-
ency of the propelling engines. The speed over a given range is
also dependent upon these factors; the maximum speed being
of Gyroscope in Torpedo,
simple frame. The rod, pressing against the tail with some force,
was apt to damage or disarrange the rudders, so the air-gun took
the place of rod impulse. Here the torpedo fits closely in a tube
or cylinder with an opening at the rear made air-tight when closed.
At the desired moment compressed air is admitted to the rear
part of the cylinder and blows the torpedo out. Gunpowder then
superseded air for this operation; and now this has given place to
a small charge of cordite, which does not leave any deposit on the
inside of the cylinder. There is a double risk in the use of locomotive
torpedoes from above water. (1) The charge may be exploded
by hostile fire. Though mainly consisting of damp gun-cotton,
which is not readily ignited, the dry primer and detonator may be
struck, which would lead to a disastrous explosion. (2) The air-
chamber is also a source of danger. As it contains air compressed
to a high degree of tension, experiments have shown that if struck
by a small shell it may burst with great violence ; and as ^t offers
a considerable mark, this is not an improbable event in an action.
An instance of the danger of above-water torpedo tubes occurred
in the Spanish-American War at the battle of Santiago. A shell
entered the " Almirante Oquendo " and struck a 14-in. torpedo
in the tube. The charge detonated, causing a fearful explosion
and practically wrecking that part of the vessel. The develop-
ment of moderate-sized quick-firing guns has increased this risk.
Hence we find the use of above-water torpedo tubes now mainly
confined to torpedo and other craft too small for submerged
discharge.
56
TORPEDO
Submerged Discharge. — The risk attached to having loaded
torpedoes above the water-line — independently of the fact that to
get the best result they should start in the element to which they
belong — has given great impetus to the system of submerged
Gun end Torpedo ready to fire
VERTICAL SECTION
and tube into the ship again, so that practically the whole operation
is one motion.
Fig. 3 will further explain this apparatus. A is the outer tube;
B the inner tube; C the shield; D torpedo; E explosion chamber
for cordite charge placed at K ; F pipe for gas to pass
into outer tube ; G and Y doors of inner and outer tube ;
J the valve which opens automatically when inner tube
arrives at position shown in fig. 2 ; T and P appliance
for running the tube in and out by hand when desired ;
arrangement for bringing whole apparatus back
for repair, &c. ; M and N sluice- valve and handle;
R, r\ r 2 , r 3 , for draining tubes before torpedo is put in ;
X indicator showing position of inner tube.
Torpedoes have been discharged from this apparatus
with successful result from a ship steaming at 17!
knots.
The advantage of cordite over compressed air for
impulse is that it requires no attention : when a charge
PLAN VIEW
Fig. 3. — Broadside Submerged 18-in. Torpedo Tube.
discharge. From the earliest days of the weapon this has been
employed to some extent. But it was principally in the direction
of right-ahead fire, by having an orifice in the stem of the ship under
water, t* which a torpedo tube was connected. The tactical
idea was thus to supplement attack with the ram, so that if the
vessel endeavouring to ram saw that the object would evade this
attack, she could project a torpedo ahead, which, travelling faster
than the vessel, might as effectually accomplish the required service.
The stem orifice had a water-tight cover, which was removed on
the torpedo being placed in the tube and the inner door closed;
then, sufficient impulse being imparted to eject the torpedo, and its
machinery being set in motion at the same time, it darted forward
towards the enemy. There is, however, some risk of the ship using
a torpedo in this manner striking it before the missile has gathered
the necessary impetus from its propellers to take it clear of the
vessel. The system, moreover, has the disadvantage of weakening
the ram, the construction of which should be of immense strength.
There is the further liability of ramming with a torpedo in the bow
tube, which would be as disastrous to friend as foe. This method
of submerged discharge has therefore given place to ejecting the
torpedo from the broadside. Considerable difficulty attached to
getting the torpedo clear of the ship from this position without
injury, especially when the vessel was proceeding at speed. The
natural tendency of the passing water acting on the head of
the torpedo as it emerged was to give a violent wrench and crush
the rear end before that portion could clear the aperture. To prevent
this the torpedo must be held rigid in the line of projection until
the tail is clear of the ship. This is thus effected. Besides the
tube with the aperture in side of the ship under water, fitted with
sluice-valve, all broadside submerged discharge apparatus possess
the following features: A shield is pushed out from the ship's
side. In this shield there are grooves of some form. Guides on
the torpedoes fit and run in these grooves. When discharged the
torpedo is thus supported against the streams of passing water,
and guided so that its axis continues in the line of projection until
the tail is clear of the side, the shield being of such length that this
occurs at the same time that the guides on the torpedo leave the
grooves in the shield. An apparatus on this principle has been
fitted to a number of ships of the British navy, and gives good
results at high rates of speed. It has the defect that the shield
must be run out previous to the torpedo being discharged, and
brought back afterwards, thus involving three separate operations,
each performed by compressed air.
In the broadside submerged discharge, designed, constructed
and supplied to many foreign navies by Messrs Armstrong of the
Elswicli works, the three operations are combined in one. There is
an outer tube as before, but it contains an inner tube carrying the
torpedo. Fized to this tube, and prolonging it, is the shield fitted
with grooves. Both tubes have a door at the rear — made air-
tight when closed — by which the torpedo is entered. A charge of
cordite is used for ejection instead of compressed air, the gas from
which entering the outer cylinder first forces the inner tube out,
and then by means of a valve in the door of the inner tube passes
in and blows out water and torpedo together, the shield supporting
the latter until the tail is clear of the ship. By this time the cordite
gas has expanded and cooled so as to relieve the pressure in rear;
this causes the pressure of the water outside to push the shield
is placed in the explosion chamber, and a torpedo is in the tube,
all is in readiness for firing when desired, without further attention
in the torpedo-room. The cordite is fired by electricity from the
conning-tower; the officer, therefore, having ascertained that all is
ready below, has only to press a button when the object is in the
required position. Automatic indications are given in the conning-
tower when the sluice-valve is opened and when all is in readiness
for firing.
This method of discharging torpedoes from the broadside under
water eliminates the principal danger of the system, which required
the shield to be put into position beforehand. It was then liable
to be struck and distorted by passing wreckage without the fact
being apparent to those in the ship. On the discharge of a torpedo
its course might thus be arrested, or possibly the charge be pre-
maturely exploded in dangerous proximity to its own ship. There
was a risk of getting the shield out too soon, and thereby exposing
it unduly to injury, or leaving the operation until too late. The
tendency of naval equipment being towards complication, any
readjustment which makes for simplicity cannot be otherwise
than beneficial, and this feature is especially desirable in all matters
connected with the use of torpedoes.
The compartment containing the broadside submerged apparatus
usually extends across the ship, so as to contain a tube for each
side.
Use in War. — This has been mainly confined to attacks upon
squadrons and single ships by torpedo craft of various types.
At the battle of Yalu, between the Chinese and Japanese fleets,
torpedoes were discharged by the former, but none took effect.
The Japanese trusted solely to gun-fire. After the defeat of
the Chinese at sea, their remaining ships took refuge in the
harbour of Wei-hai-Wei. Here they were blockaded by the
Japanese fleet, which, having a number of torpedo-boats, made
several determined attacks upon the ships inside. After one
or two attempts, foiled by the obstructions placed by the
Chinese to bar the passage, the Japanese boats succeeded in
torpedoing several ships, and thus expedited the reduction of the
place. In the war between Spain and the United States the
inferiority of Admiral Cervera's squadron to that under Admiral
Sampson might at the battle of Santiago have been to some
extent counterbalanced by a skilful and vigorous use of torpedoes.
If, instead of striving only to escape, a bold dash had been made
for the American ships, the Spanish cruisers rapidly approaching
end on to the foe, enveloped in the smoke of their own guns,
should — some at least — have got within torpedo range without
fatal injury. Closing each other at a speed of 10 knots only
they would cover an interval of 6000 yds. in 9 minutes — a
short time in which to disable a ship by gun-fire under such
conditions. But Cervera elected to offer a passive resistance
only, and while suffering destruction wrought no material injury
upon his opponents. On the other hand, there have been
TORPEDO
57
several instances of large warships being sunk by locomotive
torpedoes discharged from small craft. During the Chilean
revolutionary war of 1891, a battleship, the " Blanco Encalada,"
of 3500 tons, was attacked in Caldera Bay by two torpedo vessels
— the " Lynch " and " Condell " — of 750 tons. They entered the
bay at dawn, the " Condell " leading. This vessel fired three
torpedoes which missed the ironclad; then the " Lynch," after
one ineffective shot, discharged a second torpedo, which struck
the " Blanco " on the side, nearly amidships. The latter had
opened fire with little result, and sank soon afterwards. A
similar incident occurred in 1894, when the Brazilian ironclad
" Aquidaban " was sunk in Catherina Bay by the " Sampaio " —
a torpedo vessel of 500 tons. She entered the bay at night,
and first discharged her bow torpedo at the ironclad, which
missed; she then fired a broadside torpedo, which struck and
exploded against the bow of the " Aquidaban." It caused a
great shock on board, throwing an officer on the bridge into the
water. The vessel sank soon afterwards, and the "Sampaio"
escaped uninjured.
In the war (1904-5) between Russia and Japan the Whitehead
torpedo did not exercise an important influence upon the naval
operations. It scored a success at the beginning of the struggle
when a Japanese torpedo-flotilla made an attack upon the
Russian fleet lying at anchor outside Port Arthur. For some
unaccountable reason, though war was imminent, little or no
precautions seemed to have been taken for effectually guarding
the vessels. They had no nets in position nor boats patrolling
outside them. Thus taken by surprise when the Japanese
torpedo-boats suddenly appeared about midnight on the 8th of
February 1904, several Russian ships were struck by torpedoes
before they could offer any resistance. The most damaged
were the " Retvisan " and " Tsarevitch " (battleships) and
" Pallada " (cruiser), but all managed to get into Port Arthur
and were eventually repaired. With three ships hors de
combat the Russian fleet was considerably weakened at an
early stage. The loss of the " Petropavlovsk " in April from a
mine explosion was a further discouragement, especially as
with this ship went down the gallant and energetic Admiral
Makarov. In these circumstances the Russian fleet could not
assume the offensive nor prevent the Japanese troops being
sent by sea to invest Port Arthur. In June when the injured
vessels were fit for service again the fleet put to sea but returned
the same evening. The incident is noteworthy only because it
led to an attack by the Japanese torpedo craft on the retiring
squadron after sunset. As illustrating the uncertainty of hit-
ting a moving object at sea with the Whitehead torpedo, already
mentioned, no vessels were struck on this occasion and they
reached the anchorage uninjured. In the battle of Tsushima
the Japanese torpedo-boats attacked the Russian fleet after its
disablement by gun-fire and gave the coup de grdce to some
of the ships, which had little power of resistance owing to the
destruction of their light armament. This war, therefore, did
not increase to any extent our knowledge of the actual capability
of this weapon.
Effect upon Naval Tactics: Blockade. — It has often been
assumed that steam and the torpedo will in future render
blockade impossible as it was carried out in .the old wars; that,
no longer dependent upon the wind to allow egress from the
blockaded port, a vessel using steam can emerge when she
chooses, while the fear of torpedo attack will deter a blockading
squadron from keeping such watch as to foil the attempt. As
regards the power conferred by steam, it will be no less advan-
tageous to a blockading squadron, enabling it to maintain its
position, whereas sailing ships were often driven by gales to leave
their station and seek a port. This gave opportunities for the
blockaded vessels to escape. As regards torpedo-boats, they
would no doubt be a danger to a blockading squadron unpro-
vided with a means of defence against these craft. Such defence
consists in an adequate number of small vessels interposing an
in-shore squadron between the port and the main body outside.
Thus they perform the twofold service of watching the enemy's
movements within and frustrating a torpedo attack. As an
instance of blockade under modern conditions, we have that
of Admiral Sampson upon Santiago — a guard more rigidly
maintained than any in the old wars. So little was he deterred
by the knowledge that' Admiral Cervera had two torpedo
vessels in his force, that he drew his squadron closer in at night
when an attack might be expected, actually illuminating the
entrance of the harbour with his electric searchlights, so that
no craft could come out unperceived. No attempt was made to '
dislodge him from that position, and we may assume that
blockade, if required in any scheme of naval strategy, will be
carried out, whatever the weapons of warfare.
As regards the effect of torpedoes upon tactics at sea, and in
general, as well as single ship, actions, they must operate against
close range and employment of the ram. If it is recognized that
a vessel within 1000 yds. is liable to a fatal blow, she will
endeavour in ordinary circumstances to keep outside that
distance and rely upon gun-fire. The exception would be where
she is overmatched in that respect, and hence might endeavour
to restore the balance by the use of torpedoes. In a fleet action
the danger of missing a foe and hitting a friend would restrict
the discharge of torpedoes; and this risk increases as formations
disappear. But the torpedo must be conceded a tactical
superiority over the ram for the following reasons: A vessel
to use the latter must come within torpedo range, while her
adversary may successfully apply torpedoes without placing
herself in any danger of being rammed. The ram can only be
used in one direction, and a small miscalculation may cause
disaster. If a vessel has, more than one position from which
torpedoes can be discharged, she is not confined as regards
attack to a single bearing or direction.
In action we may consider the speed of the torpedo as double
that of the ship, and since against a moving object allowance
must be made for the space traversed while ram or torpedo is
travelling towards it, the faster weapon is less affected in its
chance of successful impact by change of direction and speed
of the object at the last moment. Lastly, with machinery
disabled a ship is powerless to use the ram, but can avert a ram
attack with her torpedoes. The movements of squadrons or
single ships on entering an action are not likely to be influenced
by any contemplated immediate use of torpedoes, for the gun
must remain the primary weapon, at any rate at the first
onset. Commanders would hardly risk being crushed by
gun-fire before getting within torpedo range. Having faith
in the efficiency of their ordnance and the gunnery skill of their
crew, they would first manoeuvre to bring these into play.
Tactics for torpedo attack in such circumstances have not
therefore been laid down, and it is only necessary to consider
the positions which are advantageous for the use of this weapon,
and, conversely, what should be avoided when a vessel, finding
herself overmatched in gunnery, seeks to redress the balance
with torpedoes.
Size of Target. — This, with a ship, varies in length as the torpedo
approaches end on to the vessel, or at angle to the line of keel ;
the greatest being' when the path of both forms a right angle.
Hence the object is to place your ship where it presents the former
condition to the enemy, while he affords the larger target. It
must be remembered that, owing to the comparatively slow velocity
of the torpedo, it must be aimed not directly at a ship in motion —
like a shot from a gun — but at a point ahead which the ship will
reach after the torpedo has traversed the intervening distance.
Thus speed of object has to be estimated, and hence the importance
of adding to the velocity of the torpedo and getting a broadside
shot so as to reduce as much as possible errors of calculation.
The great increase of the dimensions of warships, especially in
length, which now has reached 500 ft., adds to the chances of a
successful hit with torpedoes, and will doubtless tend to diminish
a desire in future naval tactics to close inside torpedo range for the
purpose of ramming.
Range. — Though the effective range of a torpedo discharged
from a ship or torpedo vessel against a single object moving
at high speed may be considered as approximately within 1000
yds. this limit of distance is considerably augmented where the
target consists of several vessels at sea in close order, or is that
afforded by a fleet at anchor. In the first case it may be worth
while to discharge torpedoes from a distance of two or three thou-
sand yards at the centre of the line for the chance of hitting one of
the vessels composing it. As regards a mass of ships at anchor.
5S
TORQUAY— TORQUEMADA, T.
unless protected by an impenetrable guard such as a breakwater
or some invulnerable defence carried by the ships themselves, the
increased range and accuracy of the torpedo imparted by recent
developments would give it a chance of success if discharged against
such a target at even greater distance.
Finally, by improvements in construction and methods of dis-
charge the torpedo has recovered the place it was rapidly losing a
few years ago. As armour receives increased resisting power to
above-water projectiles, and gets on a level again with the gun,
more attention will be given to under-water attack, against which
no adequate protection has yet been devised. Thus we shall
probably find the torpedo taking a very prominent place in any
future war between the great maritime powers. (S. M E.-W.)
TORQUAY, a municipal borough, seaport and watering place,
in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
on Tor Bay of the English Channel, 26 m. S. of Exeter, by the
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 33,625. Owing to the
beauty of its site and the equability of its climate, and to its
being screened by lofty hills on the north, east and west, and
open to the sea-breezes of the south, it has a high reputation
as a winter residence. The temperature seldom rises as high
as 70° F. in summer or falls below freezing-point in winter.
To the north lies the populous suburb of St Mary Church.
There are some remains of Tor or Torre Abbey, founded
for Praemonstratensians by William, Lord Brewer, in 1196.
They stand north of the modern mansion, but, with the
exception of a beautiful pointed arch portal, are of small
importance. On the south of the gateway is a 13th-century
building, known as the Spanish barn. On Chapel Hill are
the remains of a chapel of the 12th century, dedicated to
St Michael, and supposed to have formerly belonged to the
abbey. St Saviour's parish church of Tor-Mohun, or Tor-
moham, an ancient stone structure, was restored in 1874.
The old church at St Mary Church, north of Torquay, was
rebuilt in Early Decorated style; and in 1871 a tower was
erected as a memorial to Dr Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, who
with his wife is buried in the churchyard. St John's Church,
by G. E. Street, is a fine example of modern Gothic. Among
the principal buildings and institutions are the town-hall,
museum of the natural history society, theatre and opera-house
(1880), market, schools of art and science, the Torbay infirmary
and dispensary, the Western hospital for consumption, Crypt
House institution for invalid ladies and the Mildmay home for
incurable consumptives. The control of the harbour, piers,
pleasure grounds, &c, was acquired from the lord of the manor
by the local board in 1886. The harbour has a depth of over
20 ft. at low water. The principal imports are coal, timber
and slates, and the principal export stone of the Transition
limestone or Devonshire marble. In the town are a number of
marble-polishing works. Terra-cotta ware of fine quality is
also manufactured from a deposit of clay at Watcombe and
at Hele. The town is governed by a mayor, 9 aldermen and
27 councillors. Area, 3588 acres.
There was a village at Torre even before the foundation of the
abbey, and in the neighbourhood of Torre evidence has been
found of Roman occupation. The manor was granted by
William the Conqueror to Richard de Bruvere or de Brewere, and
was subsequently known as Tor Brewer. After the defeat of the
Spanish Armada, Don Pedro's galley was brought into Torbay;
and William, prince of Orange, landed at Torbay on the 5th of
November 1688. Until the middle of the 19th century it was
an insignificant fishing village. It was incorporated in 1892.
TORQUE, or Torc (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar,
torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the
twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particu-
larly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The
typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends
not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the
opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured
sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics,
the term " torque " is used of the turning-moment of a system-
force, as in a series dynamo.
TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE (1388-1468), or rather Johannes
de Turrecremata, Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Valladolid,
in 1388, and was educated in that city. At an early age he
joined the Dominican order, and soon distinguished himself
for learning and devotion. In 1415 he accompanied the general
of his order to the Council of Constance, whence he proceeded
to Paris for study, and took his doctor's degree in 1423. After
teaching for some time in Paris he became prior of the Dominican
house first in Valladolid and then in Toledo. In 143 1 Pope
Eugenius IV. called him to Rome and made him " magister
sancti palatii." At the Council of Basel he was one of the ablest
supporters of the view of the Roman curia, and he was rewarded
with a cardinal's hat in 1439. He died at Rome on the 26th of
September 1468.
His principal works are In Gratiani Decretum commentarii
(4 vols., Venice, 1578) ; Exposilio brevis et utilis super toto psalterio
(Mainz, 1474) ; Quaestiones spirituales super evangelia totius anni
(Brixen, 1498); Summa ecclesiastica (Salamanca, 1550). The last-
named work has the following topics: (1) De universa ecclesia;
(2) De Ecclesia romana et pontificis primatu ; (3) De universali-
bus conciliis; (4) De schismaticis et hacreticis. His De conceplione
deiparae Mariae, libri viii. (Rome, 1547), was edited with preface
and notes by E. B. Pusey (London, 1869 seq.).
TORQUEMADA, THOMAS (1420-1498), inquisitor-general of
Spain, son of Don Pedro Ferdinando, lord of Torquemada, a small
town in Old Castile, was born in 1420 at Valladolid during the
reign of John II. Being nephew to the well-known cardinal of the
same name, he early displayed an attraction for the Dominican
order; and, as soon as allowed, he joined the Friars Preachers
in their convent at Valladolid. His biographers state that he
showed himself from the beginning very earnest in austere life
and humility; and he became a recognized example of the
virtues of a Dominican. Valladolid was then the capital, and in
due course eminent dignities were offered to him, but he gave
signs of a determination to lead the simple life of a Friar Preacher,
In the convent, his modesty was so great that he refused to
accept the doctor's degree in theology, which is the highest
prized honour in the order. His superiors, however, obliged
him to take the priorship of the convent of Santa Cruz in
Segovia, where he ruled for twenty-two years. The royal family,
especially the queen and the infanta Isabella, often stayed at
Segovia, and Torquemada became confessor to the infanta,
who was then very young. He trained her to look on her
future sovereignty as an engagement to make religion respected.
Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nimes, in this Histoire du cardinal
Jimenes (Paris, 1693), says that Torquemada made her promise
that when she became queen she would make it her principal
business to chastise and destroy heretics. He then began to
teach her the political advantages of religion and to prepare the
way for that tremendous engine in the hands of the state, the
Inquisition.
Isabella succeeded to the throne (1474) on the death of
Henry IV. Torquemada had always been strong in his advice
that she should marry Ferdinand of Aragon and thus consolidate
the kingdoms of Spain. Hitherto he had rarely appeared at
court; but now the queen entrusted him not only with the care of
her conscience, but also with the benefices in the royal patronage.
He also helped her in quieting Ferdinand, who was chafing under
the privileges of the Castilian grandees, and succeeded so
well that the king also took him as confessor. Refusing the rich
see of Seville and many other preferments he accepted that
of councillor of state. For a long time he had pondered over
the confusion in which Spain was, which he attributed to the
intimate relations allowed between Christians and infidels for
the sake of commerce. He saw Jews, Saracens, heretics and
apostates roaming through Spain unmolested; and in this lax
toleration of religious differences he thought he saw the main
obstacle to the political union of the Spains, which was the
necessity of the hour. He represented to Ferdinand and
Isabella that it was essential to their safety to reorganize the
Inquisition, which had since the 13th century (1236) been
established in Spain. The bishops, who were ex officio inquisitors
in their own dioceses, had not succeeded in putting a stop to
the evils, nor had the friars, by whom they had been practically
superseded. By the middle of the 15th century there was
TORQUEMADA, T.
59
hardly an active inquisitor left in the kingdom. In 1473
Torquemada and Gonzalez de Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo,
approached the sovereigns. Isabella had been for many years
prepared, and she and Ferdinand, now that the proposal for
this new tribunal came before them, saw in it a means of over-
coming the independence of the nobility and clergy by which
the royal power had been obstructed. With the royal sanction
a petition was addressed to Sixtus IV. for the establishment of
this new form of Inquisition; and as the result of a long intrigue,
in 1479 a papal bull authorized the appointment by the Spanish
sovereigns of two inquisitors at Seville, under whom the
Dominican inquisitions already established elsewhere might serve.
In the persecuting activity that ensued the Dominicans, " the
Dogs of the Lord " {Domini canes), took the lead. Commissaries
of the Holy Office were sent into different provinces, and ministers
of the faith were established in the various cities to take cogni-
sance of the crimes of heresy, apostasy, sorcery, sodomy and
polygamy, these three last being considered to be implicit
heresy. The royal Inquisition thus started was subversive of
the regular tribunals of the bishops, who much resented the
innovation, which, however, had the power of the state at its
back.
In 1481, three years after the Sixtine commission, a tribunal
was inaugurated at Seville, where freedom of speech and licence
of manner were rife. The inquisitors at once began to detect
errors. In order not to confound the innocent with the guilty,
Torquemada published a declaration offering grace and pardon
to all who presented themselves before the tribunal and avowed
their fault. Some fled the country, but many (Mariana says
17,000) offered themselves for reconciliation. The first seat of
the Holy Office was in the convent of San Pablo, where the friars,
however, resented the orders, on the pretext that they were not
delegates of the inquisitor-general. Soon the gloomy fortress of
Triana, on the opposite bank of the Guadalquivir, was prepared
as the palace of the Holy Office; and the terror-stricken Sevil-
lianos read with dismay over the portals the motto of the
Inquisition: " Exsurge, Domine, Judica causam tuam, Capite
nobis vulpes." Other tribunals, like that of Seville and under
La Supremo., were speedily established in Cordova, Jaen and
Toledo. The sovereigns saw that wealth was beginning to flow
in to the new tribunals by means of fines and confiscations;
and they obliged Torquemada to take as assessors five persons
who would represent them in all matters affecting the royal
prerogatives. These assessors were allowed a definite vote in
temporal matters but not in spiritual, and the final decision
was reserved to Torquemada himself, who in 1483 was appointed
the sole inquisitor-general over all the Spanish possessions. In
the next year he ceded to Diego Deza, a Dominican, his office of
confessor to the sovereigns, and gave himself up to the congenial
work of reducing heretics. A general assembly of his inquisitors
was convoked at Seville for the 29th of November 1484; and
there he promulgated a code of twenty-eight articles for the
guidance of the ministers of the faith. Among these rules are
the following, which will give some idea of the procedure.
Heretics were allowed thirty days to declare themselves. Those
who availed themselves of this - grace were only fined, and their
goods escaped confiscation. Absolution in foro externo was
forbidden to be given secretly to those who made voluntary
confession; they had to submit to the ignominy of the public
auto-de-fe. The result of this harsh law was that numerous
applications were made to Rome for secret absolution; and thus
much money escaped the Inquisition in Spain. Those who
were reconciled were deprived of all honourable employment,
and were forbidden to use gold, silver, jewelry, silk or fine wool.
Against this law, too, many petitions went to Rome for rehabili-
tation, until in 1498 the Spanish pope Alexander VI. granted
leave to Torquemada to rehabilitate the condemned, and with-
drew practically all concessions hitherto made and paid for at
Rome. Fines were imposed by way of penance on those
confessing willingly. If a heretic in the Inquisition asked for
absolution, he could receive it, but subject to a life imprisonment;
but if his repentance were but feigned he could be at once
condemned and handed over to the civil power for execution.
Should the accused, after the testimony against him had been
made public, continue to deny the charge, he was to be Con-
demned as impenitent. When serious proof existed against one
who denied his crime, he could be submitted to the question by
torture; and if under torture he avowed his fault and confirmed
his guilt by subsequent confession he was punished as one con-
victed; but should he retract he was again to be submitted to
the tortures or condemned to extraordinary punishment. This
second questioning was afterwards forbidden; but the prohibi-
tion was got over by merely suspending and then renewing the
sessions for questioning. It was forbidden to communicate to
the accused the entire copy of the declaration of the witnesses.
The dead even were not free from the Holy Office; but processes
could be instituted against them and their remains subjected
to punishment. But along with these cruel and unjust measures
there must be put down to Torquemada's credit some advanced
ideas as to prison life. The cells of the Inquisition were, as a rule,
large, airy, clean and with good windows admitting the sun.
They were, in those respects, far superior to the civil prisons of
that day. The use of irons was in Torquemada's time not
allowed in the Holy Office; the use of torture was in accordance
with the practice of the other royal tribunals; and when these
gave it up the Holy Office did so also.
Such were some of the methods that Torquemada introduced
into the Spanish Inquisition, which was to have so baneful an
effect upon the whole country. During the eighteen years that
he was inquisitor-general it is said that he burnt 10,220 persons,
condemned 6860 others to be burnt in effigy, and reconciled
97,321, thus making an average of some 6000 convictions a year.
These figures are given by Llorente, who was secretary of the
Holy Office from 1790 to 1792 and had access to the archives;
but modern research reduces the list of those burnt by Torque-
mada to 2000, in itself an awful holocaust to the principle of
intolerance. The constant stream of petitions to Rome opened
the eyes of the pope to the effects of Torquemada's severity.
On three separate occasions he had to send Fray Alfonso Badaja
to defend his acts before the Holy See. The sovereigns, too,
saw the stream of money, which they had hoped for, diverted
to the coffers of the Holy Office, and in 1493 they made com-
plaint to the pope; but Torquemada was powerful enough to
secure most of the money for the expenses of the Inquisition.
But in 1496, when the sovereigns again complained that the
inquisitors were, without royal knowledge or consent, disposing
of the property of the condemned and thus depriving the public
revenues of considerable sums, Alexander VI. appointed Jimenes
to examine into the case and make the Holy Office disgorge the
plunder.
For many years Torquemada had been persuading the sove-
reigns to make an attempt once for all to rid the country of the
hated Moors. Mariana holds that the founding of the Inquisi-
tion, by giving a new impetus to the idea of a united kingdom,
made the country more capable of carrying to a satisfactory
ending the traditional wars against the Moors. The taking of
Zahaia in 148 1 by the enemy gave occasion to reprisals. Troops
were summoned to Seville and the war began by the siege of
Alhama, a town eight leagues from Granada, the Moorish
capital. Torquemada went with the sovereigns to Cordova, to
Madrid or wherever the states-general were held, to urge on
the war; and he obtained from the Holy See the same spiritual
favours that had been enjoyed by the Crusaders. But he did
not forget his favourite work of ferreting out heretics; and his
ministers of the faith made great progress over all the kingdom,
especially at Toledo, where merciless severity was shown to the
Jews who had lapsed from Christianity. The Inquisition,
although as a body the clergy did not mislike it, sometimes
met with furious opposition from the nobles and common people.
At Valentia and Lerida there were serious conflicts. At
Saragossa Peter Arbue, a canon and an ardent inquisitor,
was slain in 1485 whilst praying in a church; and the threats
against the hated Torquemada made him go in fear of his life,
and he never went abroad without an escort of forty familiar*
6o
TORRE A^NNUNZIATA— TORRENS
of the Holy Office on horseback and two hundred more on
foot. In 1487 he went with Ferdinand to Malaga and thence to
Valladolid, where in the October of 1488 he held another general
congregation of the Inquisition and promulgated new laws
based on the experience already gained. He then hurried
back to Andalusia where he joined the sovereigns, who
were now besieging Granada, which he entered with the
conquering army in January 1492 and built there a convent
of his order.
The Moors being vanquished, now came the turn of the
Jews. In 1490 had happened the case of El Santo nifto de
la Guardia — a child supposed to have been killed by the Jews.
His existence had never been proved; and in the district of
Guardia no child was reported as missing. The whole story
was most probably the creation of imaginations stimulated by
torture and despair, unless it was a deliberate fiction set forth
for the purpose of provoking hostility against the Jews. For
a long time Torquemada had tried to get the royal consent to
a general expulsion; but the sovereigns hesitated, and, as the
victims were the backbone of the commerce of the country,
proposed a ransom of 300,000 ducats instead. The indignant
friar would hear of no compromise: "Judas," he cried, "sold
Christ for 30 pence; and your highnesses wish to sell Him again
for 300,000 ducats." Unable to bear up against the Domini-
can's fiery denunciations, the sovereigns, three months after
the fall of Granada, issued a decree ordering every Jew either
to embrace Christianity or to leave the country, four months
being given to make up their minds; and those who refused to
become Christians to order had leave to sell their property and
carry off their effects. But this was not enough for the in-
quisitor-general, who in the following month (April) issued orders
to forbid Christians, under severe penalties, having any communi-
cation with the Jews or, after the period of grace, to supply
them even with the necessaries of life. The former prohibition
made it impossible for the unfortunate people to sell their
goods which hence fell to the Inquisition. The numbers
of Jewish families driven out of the country by Torquemada
is variously stated from Mariana's 1,700,000 to the more
probable 800,000 of later historians. The loss to Spain was
enormous, and from this act of the Dominican the commercial
decay of Spain dates.
Age was now creeping on Torquemada, who, however, never
would allow his misdirected zeal to rest. At another general
assembly, his fourth, he gave new and more stringent rules, which
are found in the Compilation de las instrucciones del officio de la
Santa Inquisicidn. He took up his residence in Avila, where
he had built a convent; and here he resumed the common life
of a friar, leaving his cell in October 1497 to visit, at Salamanca,
the dying infante, Don Juan, and to comfort the sovereigns
in their parental distress. They often used . to visit him at
Avila, where in 1498, still in office as inquisitor-general, he
held his last general assembly to complete his life's work.
Soon afterwards he died, on the 16th of September 1498,
" full of years and merit " says his biographer. He was buried
in the chapel of the convent of St Thomas in Avila.
The name of Torquemada stands for all that is intolerant
and narrow, despotic and cruel. He was no real statesman
or minister of the Gospel, but a blind fanatic, who failed to
see that faith, which is the gift of God, cannot be imposed on
any conscience by force. (E. Tn.)
TORRE ANNUNZIATA.a seaport of Campania, Italy, in
the province of Naples, on the east of the Bay of Naples, and
at the south foot of Mt Vesuvius, 14 m. S.E. of Naples by rail.
Pop. (1901), 2S,o7o(town); 28,084 (commune). Itis on the main
line to Battipaglia, at the point of junction of a branch line
from Cancello round the east of Vesuvius, and of the branch to
Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano. It has a royal arms
factory established by Charles IV., and other ironworks,
considerable manufacture of macaroni, paper, breeding of
silkworms, and some fishing and shipping. The harbour is
protected by moles. Remains attributed to the Roman post-
station of Oplontis were discovered in making the railway
between Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata, a little west of
the latter, in 1842.
TORRE DEL GRECO, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Naples, 7! m. S.E. of that city by rail. Pop.
(1901), 35,328. It lies at the south-west foot of Vesuvius, on the
shore of the Bay of Naples. It is built chiefly of lava, and stands
on the lava stream of 1631, which destroyed two-thirds of the
older town. Great damage was done by the eruptions of
1737 and 1794; the earthquake of 1857 and the eruption of the
8th of December 1861 were even more destructive. After each dis-
aster the people returned, the advantage of the rich volcanic land
overcoming apprehensions of danger. In the outskirts are
many beautiful villas and gardens. The town has shipbuilding
yards and lava quarries. The inhabitants take part in the
coral and sponge fishing off the African and Sicilian coasts, and
coral is worked in the town. There is also fishing for tunny,
sardines and oysters; hemp is woven, and the neighbourhood
is famed for its fruit and wine. In June the great popular
festival " Dei Quattro Altari " is annually celebrated here in
commemoration of the abolition of the feudal dominion in
1700. Remains of ancient villas and baths have been found
here.
TORRENS, ROBERT (1 780-1 864), English soldier and econo-
mist, was born in Ireland in 1780. He entered the Marines
in 1797, became a captain in 1806, and major in 1811 for
bravery in Anhalt during the Walcheren expedition. He
fought in the Peninsula, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1835
and retiring as colonel in 1837. After abortive attempts to
enter parliament in 1818 and 1826, he was returned in 1831 as
member for Ashburton. He was a prolific writer, principally on
financial and commercial policy. Almost the whole of the pro-
gramme which was carried out in legislation by Sir Robert Peel
had been laid down in his economic writings. He was an
early and earnest advocate of the repeal of the corn laws,
but was not in favour of a general system of absolute free trade,
maintaining that it is expedient to impose retaliatory duties
to countervail similar duties imposed by foreign countries,
and a lowering of import duties on the productions of countries
retaining their hostile tariffs would occasion a decline in
prices, profits and wages.
His principal writings of a general character were : The Economist
[i.e. Physiocrat] refuted (1808); Essay on the Production of Wealth
(1821); Essay on the External Corn-trade (eulogized by Ricardo)
(1827) ; The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial
and Colonial Policy (1841-1843); The Principles and Practical
Operations of Sir Robert Peel's Act of 1844 Explained and Defended
(1847).
TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884), British
colonial statesman, was born at Cork, Ireland, in 1814, and
educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He went to South Aus-
tralia in 1840, and was appointed collector of customs. He was
an official member of the first legislative council and in 1852
was treasurer and registrar-general. When responsible govern-
ment was established he was elected as a representative for
Adelaide and became a member of the first ministry. In 1857
he introduced his famous Real Property Act, the principle of
which consists of conveyance By registration and certificate
instead of deeds. The system was rapidly adopted in the other
colonies and elsewhere, and was expounded by the author during
a visit to the United Kingdom in 1862-1864. After leaving
South Australia, Sir R. R. Torrens represented Cambridge
in the House of Commons from 1868 to 1874; in 1872 he was
knighted. He was the author of works on the effect of the
gold discoveries on the currency, and other subjects. He died
on the 31st of August 1884.
TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS M'CULLAGH (1813-1894),
English politician and social reformer, son of James M'Cullagh
(whose wife's maiden name, Torrens, he assumed in 1863),
was born near Dublin on the 13 th of October 1813. He was
called to the bar, and in 1835 became assistant commissioner
on the special commission on Irish poor-relief, which resulted
in the extension of the workhouse system in Ireland in
1838. In the 'forties he joined the Anti-Corn Law League,
TORRES NAHARRO, B. DE— TORRICELLI
61
and in 1846 published his Industrial History of Free Nations.
In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Dundalk, and sat
till 1852. In 1857 he was elected as a Liberal for Yarmouth
and from 1865 to 1885 he represented Finsbury. Torrens
was a well known man in political life, and devoted himself
mainly to social questions in parliament. It was an amend-
ment of his to the Education Bill of 1870 which established
the London School Board, and his Artisans' Dwellings Bill in
1868 facilitated the clearing away of slums by local authorities.
He published several books, and his Twenty Years in Parlia-
ment (1893) and History of Cabinets (1894) contain useful
material. He died in London on the 26th of April 1894.
TORRES NAHARRO, BARTOLOMlJ DE (1480-1530;,
Spanish dramatist, was born towards the end of the 15th century
at Torres, near Badajoz. After some years of soldiering and of
captivity in Algiers, Torres Naharro took orders, settled in
Rome about 1511, and there devoted himself chiefly to writing
plays. Though he alludes to the future pope, Clement VII. as
his protector, he left Rome to enter the household of Fabrizio
Colonna at Naples where his works were printed under the title
of Propaladia (1517). He is conjectured to have returned to his
native place, and to have died there shortly after 1529. His
Didlogo del nacimiento is written in unavowed, though obvious,
imitation of Encina, but in his subsequent plays he shows a
much larger conception of dramatic possibilities. He classifies his
pieces as comedias & noticia and comedias a fantasia; the former,
of which the Soldatesca and Tinellaria are examples, present
in dramatic form' incidents within his personal experience; the
latter, which include such plays as Serafina, Himenea, Calamita
and Aqnilana, present imaginary episodes with adroitness and
persuasiveness. Torres Naharro is much less dexterous in stage-
craft than many inferior successors, his humour is rude and
boisterous and his diction is unequal; but to a varied knowledge
of human nature he adds knowledge of dramatic effect, and his
rapid dialogue, his fearless realism and vivacious fancy prepared
the way for the romantic drama in Spain.
TORRES NOVAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of San-
tarem, 19 m. N.N.E. of Santarem on the Lisbon-Entroncamento
railway. Pop. (1900), 10,746. It manufactures cottons, linens,
jute, paper, leather and spirits. It was probably founded by
Greeks, and was held by the Romans, Goths and Moors, from
whom it was conquered in 1148 by Alphonso I. of Portugal.
TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of
Lisbon, 43 m. N. by W. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira da
Foz railway. Pop. (1900), 6900. Torres Vedras is built on
the left bank of the river Sizandro; it has a Moorish citadel
and hot sulphur baths. Roman inscriptions and other remains
have been found here, but the Latin name of the town, Turres
Veteres, is probably medieval. Here were the noted fortifica-
tions known as the " lines of Torres Vedras," constructed by
Wellington in r8ro (see Peninsular War). Here also in 1846
the troops of General Saldanha defeated those of the count
de Bomfin and seized the castle and town (see Portugal:
History).
TORRES Y VILLAROEL, DIEGO DE (1696-1759?), Spanish
miscellaneous writer, was born in 1696 at Salamanca, where his
father was bookseller to the university. In his teens Torres
escaped to Portugal where he enlisted under a false name; he
next moved te Madrid, living from hand to mouth as a hawker;
in 1 71 7 he was ordained subdeacon, resumed his studies at
Salamanca, and in 1726 became professor of mathematics at
the university. A friend of his having stabbed a priest, Torres
was suspected of complicity, and once more fled to Portugal,
where he remained till his innocence was proved. He then
returned to his chair, which he resigned in 1751 to act as steward
to two noblemen; he was certainly alive in 1758, but the date
of his death is not known. Torres had so slight a smattering
of mathematics that his appointment as professor was thought
scandalous even in his own scandalous age; yet he quickly
acquired a store of knowledge which he displayed with serene
assurance. His almanacs, his verses, his farces, his devotional
and pseudo-scientific writings show that he possessed the alert
adaptiveness of the born adventurer; but all that remains of
his fourteen volumes (1745-1752) is his autobiography, an
amusing record of cynical effrontery and successful imposture.
TORREVIEJA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the pro-
vince of Alicante, 3 m. S.W. of Cape Cervera, and at the
terminus of a railway to Albatera on the Alicante-Murcia line.
Pop. (1900), 7706. The district is famous for its salt beds, which
are owned and worked by the state, the Laguna Grande alone
yielding more than 100,000 tons a year. The other industries
are chiefly fishing, shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes
and sails. The roadstead affords safe anchorage. There is an
active trade in fruit and agricultural products.
TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873), American botanist, was born
at New York on the 15th of August 1796. When he was 15
or 16 years of age his father received a prison appointment at
Greenwich, and there he made the acquaintance of Amos Eaton
(1 776-1842), a pioneer of natural history studies in America. He
thus learned the elements of botany, as well as something of
mineralogy and chemistry. In 181 5 he began the study of
medicine, qualifying in 1818. In the following year he issued
his Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles
of the City of New York, and in 1824 he issued the first and only
volume of his Flora of the Northern and Middle States. In the
same year he obtained the chair of chemistry and geology at
West Point military academy, and three years later the pro-
fessorship of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians
and Surgeons, New York. In 1836 he was appointed botanist
to the state of New York and produced his Flora of that state in
1843; while from 1838 to 1843 he carried on the publication of
the earlier portions of Flora of North America, with the assistance
of his pupil, Asa Gray. From 1853 he was chief assayer to the
United States assay office, but he continued to take an interest
in botanical teaching until his death at New York on the 10th
of March 1873. He made over his valuable herbarium and
botanical library to Columbia College in i860, and he was the
first president of the Torrey Botanical Club in 1873. His name
is commemorated in the small coniferous genus Torreya, found
in North America and in China and Japan. T. taxifolia, a
native of Florida, is known as the Torrey tree or savin, and also
as the stinking cedar.
TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER (1856- ), American evange-
list, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on the 28th of January
1856. He graduated at Yale University in 1875 and at the Yale
Divinity School in 1878. ' He became a Congregational minister
in 1878, studied theology at Leipzig and Erlanger in 1882-1883,^,
joined D. L. Moody in his evangelistic work in Chicago in 1889,'
and became pastor of the Chicago Avenue Church in 1894 and
afterwards superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute of
Chicago. In 1902-1903 he preached in nearly every part of the
English-speaking world, and with Charles McCallon Alexander
(b. 1867) conducted revival services in Great Britain in 1903-
1905; Torrey conducted a similar campaign in American and
Canadian cities in 1 906-1 907.
TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), Italian physicist
and mathematician, was born at Faenza on the 15th of October
1608. Left fatherless at an early age, he was educated under
the care of his uncle, a Camaldolese monk, who in 1627 sent him
to Rome to study science under the Benedictine Benedetto
Castelli (1577-1644), professor of mathematics at the Collegio
di Sapienza. The perusal of Galileo's Dialoghi delle nuove
scienze (1638) inspired him with many developments of the
mechanical principles there set forth, which he embodied in a
treatise De motu (printed amongst his Opera geometrica, 1644).
Its communication by Castelli to Galileo in 1641, with a proposal
that Torricelli should reside with him, led to Torricelli repairing
to Florence, where he met Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis
during the three remaining months of his life. After Galileo's
death Torricelli was nominated grand-ducal mathematician
and professor of mathematics in the Florentine academy. The
discovery of the principle of the barometer (q.v.) which has
perpetuated his fame (" Torricellian tube " " Torricellian
vacuum ") was made in 1643.
62
TORRIDONIAN— TORRINGTON, EARL OF
The publication amongst Torricelli's Opera geometrica
(Florence, 1644) of a tract on the properties of the cycloid
involved him in a controversy with G. P. de Roberval, who
accused him of plagiarizing his earlier solution of the problem of
its quadrature. There seems, however, no room for doubt that
Torricelli's was arrived at independently. The matter was
still in debate when he was seized with pleurisy, and died at
Florence on the 25th of October 1647. He was buried in San
Lorenzo, and a commemorative statue of him erected at Faenza
in 1864.
Among the new truths detected by him was the valuable
mechanical principle that if any number of bodies be so con-
nected that, by their motion, their centre of gravity can neither
ascend nor descend, then those bodies are in equilibrium. He
also discovered the remarkable fact that the parabolas described
(in a vacuum) by indefinitely numerous projectiles discharged
from the same point with equal velocities, but in all directions
have a paraboloid of revolution for their envelope. His theorem
that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity
(friction and atmospheric resistance being neglected) which it
would have acquired in falling through the depth from its sur-
face is of fundamental importance in hydraulics. He greatly
improved both the telescope and microscope. Several large
object lenses, engraven with his name, are preserved at Florence.
He used and developed B. Cavalieri's method of indivisibles.
A selection from Torricelli's manuscripts was published by
Tommaso Bonaventura in 17 15, with the title Lezioni accademiche
(Florence). They include an address of acknowledgment on his
admission to the Accademia della Crusca. His essay on the inun-
dations of the Val di Chiana was printed in Raccolta d'autori
che trattano del moto dell' acque, iv. 115 (Florence, 1768), and amongst
Opusculi idraulici, iii. 347 (Bologna, 1822). For his life see Fabroni,
Vitae Italorum, i. 345 ; Ghinassi, Lettere fin qui inedite di Evan-
gelista Torricelli (Faenza, 1864); Tiraboschi, Storia della Lett. it.
viii. 302 (ed. 1824); Montucla, Hist, des math., vol. ii. ; Marie, Hist,
des sciences, iv. 133.
TORRIDONIAN, in geology, a series of pre-Cambrian are-
naceous sediments extensively developed in the north-west high-
lands of Scotland and particularly in the neighbourhood of upper
Loch Torridon, a circumstance which suggested the name
Torridon Sandstone, first applied to these rocks by J. Nicol.
The rocks are mainly red and chocolate sandstones, arkoses,
flagstones and shales with coarse conglomerates locally at the
base. Some of the materials of these rocks were derived from
the underlying Lewisian gneiss, upon the uneven surface of
which they rest; but the bulk of the material was obtained
from rocks that are nowhere now exposed. Upon this ancient
denuded land surface the Torridonian strata rest horizontally
or with gentle inclination. Their outcrop extends in a belt of
variable breadth from Cape Wrath to the Point of Sleet in Skye,
running in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction through Ross-shire and
Sutherlandshire. They form the isolated mountain peaks of
Canisp, Quinag and Suilven in the neighbourhood of Loch
Assynt, of Slioch near Loch Maree and other hills. They attain
their maximum development in the Applecross, Gairloch and
Torridon districts, form the greater part of Scalpay, and occur
also in Rum, Raasay, Soay and the Crowlin Islands. The
Torridonian rocks have been subdivided into three groups: an
upper Aultbea group, 3000-5000 ft.; a middle or Applecross
group, 6000-8000 ft.; and a lower or Diabeg group, 500 ft. in
Gairloch but reaching a thickness of 7200 ft. in Skye.
See " The Geological Structure of the North-West Highlands
of Scotland," Mem. Geol. Survey (Glasgow, 1907). (J. A. H.)
TORRIGIANO, PIETRO (1472-1522), Florentine sculptor,
was, according to Vasari, one of the group of talented youths
who studied art under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent
in Florence. Benvenuto Cellini, reporting a conversation with
Torrigiano, relates that he and Michelangelo, while both young,
were copying the frescoes in the Carmine chapel, when some
slighting remark made by Michelangelo so enraged Torrigiano
that he struck him on the nose, and thus caused that disfigure-
ment which is so conspicuous in all the portraits of Michelangelo.
Soon after this Torrigiano visited Rome, and helped Pintu-
ricchio in modelling the elaborate stucco decorations in the
Apartamenti Borgia for Alexander VI. After some time spent as a
hired soldier in the service of different states, Torrigiano was
invited to England to execute the magnificent tomb for Henry
VII. and his queen, which still exists in the lady chapel of West-
minster Abbey. This appears to have been begun before the
death of Henry VII. in 1509, but was not finished till 1517.
The two effigies are well modelled, and have lifelike but not
too realistic portraits. After this Torrigiano received the com-
mission for the altar, retable and baldacchino which stood at
the west, outside the screen of Henry VII.'s tomb. The altar
had marble pilasters at the angles, two of which still exist, and
below the mensa was a life-sized figure of the dead Christ in
painted terra-cotta. The retable consisted of a large relief of
the Resurrection. The baldacchino was of marble, with enrich-
ments of gilt bronze; part of its frieze still exists, as do also a
large number of fragments of the terra-cotta angels which sur-
mounted the baldacchino and parts of the large figure of Christ.
The whole of this work was destroyed by the Puritans in the 17th
century. 1 Henry VIII. also commissioned Torrigiano to make
him a magnificent tomb, somewhat similar to that of Henry
VII., but one-fourth larger, to be placed in a chapel at Windsor;
it was, however, never completed, and its rich bronze was melted
by the Commonwealth, together with that of Wolsey's tomb.
The indentures for these various works still exist, and are printed
by Neale, Westminster Abbey, i. 54-59 (London, 1818). These
interesting documents are written in English, and in them
the Florentine is called " Peter Torrysany." For Henry VII.'s
tomb he contracted to receive £1500, for the altar and its fit-
tings £1000, and £2000 for Henry VIII.'s tomb. Other works
attributed from internal evidence to Torrigiano are the tomb
of Margaret of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., in the south
aisle of his chapel, and a terra-cotta effigy in the chapel of the
Rolls.
While these royal works were going on Torrigiano visited
Florence in order to get skilled assistants. He tried to induce
Benvenuto Cellini to come to England to help him, but Cellini
refused partly from his dislike to the brutal and swaggering
manners of Torrigiano, and also because he did not wish to
live among " such beasts as the English." The latter part
of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville,
where, besides the painted figure of St Hieronymus in the
museum, some terra-cotta sculpture by him still exists. His
violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities,
and he ended his life in 1522 in the prisons of the Inquisition.
See Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plasiik (Berlin, 1902).
TORRINGTON, ARTHUR HERBERT, Earl or (1647-
17 16), British admiral, was the son of a judge, Sir Edward
Herbert (c. 1591-1657). He entered the navy in 1663, and served
in the Dutch wars of the reign of Charles II., as well as against
the Barbary pirates. From 1680 to 1683 he commanded in
the Mediterranean. His career had been honourable, and he
had been wounded in action. The known Royalist sentiments
of his family combined with his reputation as a naval officer to
point him out to the favour of the king, and James II. appointed
him rear-admiral of England and master of the robes. The
king no doubt counted on his support of the repeal of the Test
Acts, as the admiral was member for Dover. Herbert refused,
and was dismissed from his places. He now entered into com-
munication with the agents of the prince of Orange, and promised
to use his influence with the fleet to forward a revolution.
After the acquittal of the seven bishops in 1688 he carried the
invitation to William of Orange. The Revolution brought him
ample amends for his losses. He was named first lord, and took
the command of the fleet at home. In 1689 he was at sea
attempting to prevent the French admiral Chateau-Renault
(q.v.) from landing the troops sent by the king of France to the
aid of King James in Ireland. Though he fought an action with
1 An old drawing still exists showing this elaborate work; it is
engraved in the Hierurgia anglicana, p. 267 (London, 1848). Many
hundreds of fragments of this terra-cotta sculpture were found a
few years ago hidden under the floor of the triforium in the 'abbey;
they are jnfortunately too much broken and imperfect to be fitted
together.'
TORRINGTON, VISCOUNT— TORRINGTON
63
the French in Bantry Bay on the 10th of May he failed to baffle
Chateau-Renault, who had a stronger force. Being discontented
with the amount of force provided at sea, he resigned his place
at the admiralty, but retained his command at sea. In May
1689 he was created earl of Torrington. In 1690 he was in the
Channel with a fleet of English and Dutch vessels, which did
not rise above 56 in all, and found himself in front of the much
more powerful French fleet. In his report to the council of
regency he indicated his intention of retiring to the Thames, and
losing sight of the enemy, saying that they would not do any
harm to the coast while they knew his fleet to be " in being."
The council, which knew that the Jacobites were preparing for
a rising, and only waited for the support of a body of French
troops, ordered him not to lose sight of the enemy, but rather
than do that to give battle " upon any advantage of the wind."
On the 10th of July Torrington, after consulting with his Dutch
colleagues, made a half-hearted attack on the French off Beachy
Head in which his own ship was kept out of fire, and severe
loss fell on his allies. Then he retired to the Thames. The
French pursuit was fortunately feeble (see Tourville, Comte
de) and the loss of the allies was comparatively slight. The
indignation of the country was at first great, and Torrington
was brought to a court martial in December. He was acquitted,
but never again employed. Although twice married, he was
childless when he died on the 14th of April 1716, his earldom
becoming extinct. The unfavourable account of his moral
character given by Dartmouth to Pepys is confirmed by Bishop
Burnet, who had seen much of him during his exile in Holland.
An attempt has been made in recent years to rehabilitate the
character of Torrington, and his phrase " a fleet in being " has
been widely used (see Naval Warfare, by Vice-Admiral P. H.
Colomb).
See Charnock's Biog. Nav., i. 258. The best account of the battle
of Beachy Head is to be found in " The Account given by Sir John
Ashby Yice-Admiral and Rear-Admiral Rooke, to the Lords Com-
missioners " (1691).
TORRINGTON, GEORGE BYNG, Viscount (1663-1733),
English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent. His father,
John Byng, was compelled by pecuniary losses to sell his property
and his son entered the navy as a king's letter boy (see Navy)
in 1678. He served in a ship stationed at Tangier, and for a
time left the navy to enter one of the regiments of the garrison,
but in 1683 he returned to the navy as lieutenant, and went to
the East Indies in the following year. During the year 1688,
he had an active share in bringing the fleet over to the prince
of Orange, and by the success of the revolution his fortune was
made. In 1702 he was appointed to the command of the
" Nassau," and was at the taking and burning of the French
fleet at Vigo,« and the next year he was made rear-admiral of
the red. In 1704 he served in the Mediterranean under Sir
Cloudesley Shovel, and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle
of Malaga, and for his gallantry received the honour of knight-
hood. In 1708 as admiral of the blue he commanded the
squadron which baffled the attempt of the Old Pretender to land
in Scotland. In 1718 he commanded the fleet which defeated the
Spaniards off Cape Passaro and compelled them to withdraw from
their invasion of Sicily. This commission he executed so well
that the king made him a handsome present and sent him full
powers to negotiate with the princes and states of Italy. Byng
procured for the emperor's troops free access into the fortresses
which still held out in Sicily, sailed afterwards to Malta, and
brought out the Sicilian galleys and a ship belonging to the
Turkey Company. By his advice and assistance the Germans
retook the city of Messina in 1719, and destroyed the ships which
lay in the basin — an achievement which completed the ruin
ot the naval power of Spain. To his conduct it was entirely
owing that Sicily was subdued and the king of Spain forced to
accept the terms prescribed him by the quadruple alliance.
On his return to England in 1721 he was made rear-admiral
of Great Britain, a member of the privy council, Baron Byng
of Southill, in the county of Bedford and Viscount Torrington
in Devonshire. He was also made one of the Knights Com-
panions of the Bath upon the revival of that order in 1725.
In 1727 George II. on his accession made him first lord of the
admiralty, and his administration was distinguished by the
establishment of the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. He
died on the 17th of January 1733, and was buried at Southill,
in Bedfordshire. Two of his eleven sons, Pattee (1699-1747)
and George (1701-1750), became respectively the 2nd and 3rd
viscounts. The title is still held by the descendants of t\e
latter.
See Memoirs relating to Lord Torrington, Camden Soc, new series
46, and A True Account of the Expedition of the British Fleet to Sicily
1718-1720, published anonymously, but known to be by Thomas
Corbett of the admiralty in 1739. Forbin's Memoirs contain
the French side of the expedition to Scotland in 1708.
TORRINGTON, a borough of Litchfield county, Connecticut,
U.S.A., in the township of Torrington, on the Naugatuck river,
about 25 m. W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900), 8360, of whom 2565
were foreign-born; (1910) 15,483; of the township, including the
borough (1900) 12,453; (1910) 16,840. It is served by the New
York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an electric line con-
necting with Winsted. It has a public library (1865) with 15,000
volumes in 1909. There is a state armoury in the borough.
Torrington is a prosperous manufacturing centre. In 1905 the
value of the factory product was $9,674,124. The township
of Torrington, originally a part of the township of Windsor,
was first settled in 1734, and was separately incorporated in
1740. The site was covered by pine trees, which were much
used for ship-building, and for this reason it was known as
Mast Swamp. In 1751 a mill was erected, but there were few,
if any, residences until 1800. In 1806 the settlement was known
as New Orleans village. In 1813 members of the Wolcott family
of Litchfield, impressed with the water-power, bought land and
built a woollen mill, and the village that soon developed was
called Wolcottville. Its growth was slow until 1864. In 1881
its name was changed to Torrington, and in 1887 the borough
was incorporated.
See S. Orcutt's History of Torrington (Albany, 1878), and an
article, " The Growth of Torrington," in the Connecticut Magazine,
vol. ix., No. 1.
TORRINGTON (Great Torrington), a market town and
municipal borough in the South Molton parliamentary division
of Devonshire, England, on the Torridge, 225 m. W. by S. of
London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 3241. It stands on a hill overlooking the richly wooded
valley of the Torridge, here crossed by three bridges. Glove
manufactures on a large scale, with flour and butter making
and leather dressing, are the staple industries. The town is
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area,
3592 acres.
Torrington {Toritone) was the site of very early settlement,
and possessed a market in Saxon times. The manor was held
by Brictric in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and in 1086
formed part of the Domesday fief of Odo Fitz Gamelin, which
later constituted an honour with Torrington as its caput. In
1221 it appears as a mesne borough under William de Toritone,
a descendant of Odo and the supposed founder of the castle,
which in 1228 was ordered to be razed to the ground, but is
said to have been rebuilt in 1340 by Richard de Merton. The
borough had a fair in 1221, and returned two members to parlia-
ment from 1295 until exempted from representation at its own
request in 1368. The government was vested in bailiffs and
a commonalty, and no charter of incorporation was granted
till that of Queen Mary in 1554, which instituted a governing
body of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 18 chief burgesses, with
authority to hold a court of record every three weeks on
Monday; law-days and view of frankpledge at Michaelmas and
Easter; a weekly market on Saturday, and fairs at the feasts
of St Michael and St George. This charter was confirmed by
Elizabeth in 1568 and by James I. in 1617. A charter from
James II. in 1686 changed the style of the corporation to a
mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 chief burgesses. In the 16th century
Torrington was an important centre of the clothing trade, and
in 1605 the town is described as very prosperous, with three
6 4
TORSTENSSON^-TORT
fairs, and a great market " furnished from far on every quarter,
being the most convenient place for occasions of king or county
in those parts." The Saturday market is still maintained, but
the fairs have been altered to the third Saturday in March and
the first Thursday in May. In 1643 Colonel Digby took up
his position at Torrington and put to flight a contingent of
parliamentary troops; but in 1646 the town was besieged by Sir
Thomas Fairfax and finally forced to surrender. The borough
records were destroyed by fire in 1724.
See Victoria County History: Devonshire; F. T. Colby, History
of Great Torrington (1878).
TORSTENSSON, LENNART, Count (1603-1651), Swedish
soldier, son of Torsten Lennartsson, commandant of Elfsborg,
was born at Forstena in Vestergotland. At the age of fifteen
he became one of the pages of the young Gustavus Adolphus
and served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628-29. In
1629 he was set over the Swedish artillery, which under his
guidance materially contributed to the victories of Breitenfeld
(1631) and Lech (1632). The same year he was taken prisoner
at Alte Veste and shut up for nearly a year at Ingolstadt.
Under Baner he rendered distinguished service at the battle of
Wittstock (1636) and during the energetic defence of Pomerania
in 1637-38, as well as at the battle of Chemnitz (1638) and in
the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness compelled him to return
to Sweden in 1641, when he was made a senator. The sudden
death of Baner in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany
as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and governor-general of
Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank
of field marshal. The period of his command (1641-1645)
forms one of the most brilliant chapters in the military history
of Sweden. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and
Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his
way. On returning through Saxony he well nigh annihilated
the imperialist army at the second battle of Breitenfeld
(Oct. 23, 1642). In 1643 he invaded Moravia for the second
time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his
rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish
defence on the land side, though Torstensson's own position in
Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling
of the Danish fleet by Christian IV. In 1644 he led his army
for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed
the imperialists at Juterbog (Nov. 23). At the beginning
of November 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the brilliant
victory of Jankow (Feb. 24, 1645) laid open before him the
road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge
actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to
penetrate any farther and, in December the same year, Tor-
stensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command
and return to Sweden. In 1647 he was created a count. From
1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as
governor-general. On his death at Stockholm (April 7,
1651) he was buried solemnly in the Riddarholmskyrka, the
Pantheon of Sweden. Torstensson was remarkable for the
extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements,
though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as
his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse.
He was also the most scientific artillery officer and the best and
most successful engineer in the Swedish army.
His son, Senator Count Anders Torstensson (1641-1686),
was from 1674 to 1681 governor-general of Esthonia. The
family became extinct on the sword-side in 1727.
See J. W. de Peyster, History of the Life of L. Torstensson (Pough-
keepsie, 1855); J. Feil, Torstensson before Vienna (trans, by de
Peyster, New York, 1885); Gustavus III., Eulogy of Torstensson
(trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1872). (R. N. B.)
TORT (Fr. for wrong, from Lat. tortus, twisted, participle
of torquere), the technical term, in the law of England, of those
dominions and possessions of the British Empire where the
common law has been received or practically adopted in civil
affairs, and of the United States, for a civil wrong, i.e. the
breach of a duty imposed by law, by which breach some person
becomes entitled to sue for damages. A tort must, on the
one hand, be an act which violates a general duty. The rule
which it breaks must be one made by the law, not, as in the
case of a mere breach of contract, a rule which the law protects
because the parties have made it for themselves. On the other
hand, a tort is essentially the source of a private right of action.
An offence which is punishable, but for which no one can bring
a civil action, is not a tort. It is quite possible for one and the
same act to be a tort and a breach of contract, or a tort and a
crime; it is even possible in one class of cases for the plaintiff
to have the option — for purposes of procedural advantage — of
treating a real tort as a fictitious contract; but there is no
necessary or general connexion. Again, it is not the case that
pecuniary damages are always or necessarily the only remedy
for a tort; but the right to bring an action in common law juris-
diction, as distinct from equity, matrimonial or admiralty
jurisdiction, with the consequent right to damages, is invariably
present where a tort has been committed.
This technical use of the French word tort (which at one
time was near becoming a synonym of wrong in literary
English) is not very ancient, and anything like systematic
treatment of the subject as a whole is very modern. Since
about the middle of the 19th century there has been a current
assumption that all civil causes of action must be founded on
either contract or tort; but there is no historical foundation for
this doctrine, though modified forms of the action of trespass —
actions in consimili casu, or " on the case " in the accustomed
English phrase — did in practice largely supplant other more
archaic forms of action by reason of their greater convenience.
The old forms were designed as penal remedies for manifest
breach of the peace or corruption of justice; and traces of the
penal element remained in them long after the substance of the
procedure had become private and merely civil. The transition
belongs to the general history of English law.
In England the general scope of the law of torts has never
been formulated by authority, the law having in fact been
developed by a series of disconnected experiments with the
various forms of action which seemed from time to time to
promise the widest and most useful remedies. But there is
no doubt that the duties enforced by the English law of torts
are broadly those which the Roman institutional writers summed
up in the precept Alterum non laedere. Every member of a
civilized commonwealth is entitled to require of others a certain
amount of respect for his person, reputation and property,
and a certain amount of care and caution when they go about
undertakings attended with risk to their neighbours. Under
the modern law, it is submitted, the question arising when one
man wilfully or recklessly harms another is not whether some
technical form of action can be found in which he is liable, but
whether he can justify or excuse himself. This view, at any rate,
is countenanced by a judgment of the Supreme Court of the
United States delivered in 1904. If it be right, the controverted
question whether conspiracy is or is not a substantive cause
of action seems to lose most of its importance. Instead of the
doubtful proposition of law that some injuries become unlawful
only when inflicted by concerted action, we shall have the plain
proposition of fact that some kinds of injury cannot, as a rule,
be inflicted by one person with such effect as to produce any
damage worth suing for.
The precise amount of responsibility can be determined only
by full consideration in each class of cases. It is important to
observe, however, that a law of responsibility confined to a man's
own personal acts and defaults would be of next to no practical
use under the conditions of modern society. What makes the
law of torts really effective, especially with regard to redress
for harm suffered by negligence, is the universal rule of law that
every one is answerable for the acts and defaults of his servants
(that is, all persons acting under his direction and taking their
orders from him or some one representing him) in the course of
their employment. The person actually in fault is not the less
answerable, but the remedy against him is very commonly not
worth pursuing. But for this rule corporations could not be
liable for any negligence of their servants,, however disastrous
TORT
65
to innocent persons, except so far as it might happen to constitute
a breach of some express undertaking. We have spoken of the
rule as universal, hut, in the case of one servant of the same
employer being injured by the default of another, an unfortunate
aberration of the courts, which started about two generations
ago from small beginnings, was pushed to extreme results,
and led to great hardship. A partial remedy was applied in
1880 by the Employers' Liability Act; and in 1897 a much bolder
step was taken by the Workmen's Compensation Act (super-
seded by a more comprehensive act in 1906). But, as the
common law and the two acts (which proceed on entirely
different principles) cover different fields, with a good deal of
overlapping, and the acts are full of complicated provisos and
exceptions, and contain very special provisions as to procedure,
the improvement in substantial justice has been bought, so
far, at the price of great confusion in the form of the law, and
considerable difficulty in ascertaining what it is in any but
the most obvious cases. The Workmen's Compensation Act
includes cases of pure accident, where there is no fault at all,
or none that can be proved, and therefore goes beyond the
reasons of liability with which the law of torts has to do. In
fact, it establishes a kind of compulsory insurance, which can
be justified only on wider grounds of policy. A novel and
extraordinary exception to the rule of responsibility for
agents was made in the case of trade combinations by the
Trade Disputes Act 1906. This has no interest for law as
a science.
There are kinds of cases, on the other hand, in which the law,
without aid from legislation, has imposed on occupiers and other
persons in analogous positions a duty stricter than that of
being answerable for themselves and their servants. Duties
of this kind have been called " duties of insuring safety." Gene-
rally they extend to having the building, structure, or works in
such order, having regard to the nature of the case, as not
to create any danger to persons lawfully frequenting, using, or
passing by them, which the exercise of reasonable care and skill
could have avoided; but in some cases of " extra-hazardous "
risk, even proof of all possible diligence — according to English
authority, which is not unanimously accepted in America — will
not suffice. There has lately been a notable tendency to extend
these principles to the duties incurred towards the public by
local authorities who undertake public works. Positive duties
created by statute are on a similar footing, so far as the breach
of them is capable of giving rise to any private right of
action.
The classification of actionable wrongs is perplexing, not
because it is difficult to find a scheme of division, but because it is
easier to find many than to adhere to any one of them. We may
start either from the character of the defendant's act or omission,
with regard to his knowledge, intention and otherwise; or from
the character of the harm suffered by the plaintiff. Whichever
of these we take as the primary line of distinction, the results can
seldom be worked out without calling in the other. Taking
first the defendant's position, the widest governing principle is
that, apart from various recognized grounds of immunity, a
man is answerable for the " natural and probable " consequences
of his acts; i.e. such consequences as a reasonable man in his
place should have foreseen as probable. Still more is he answer-
able for what he did actually foresee and intend. Knowledge
of particular facts may be necessary to make particular kinds
of conduct wrongful. Such is the rule in the case of fraud and
other allied wrongs, including what is rather unhappily called
" slander of title," and what is now known as " unfair com-
petition " in the matter of trade names and descriptions, short
of actual piracy of trade-marks. But where an absolute right
to security for a man's person, reputation or goods is interfered
with, neither knowledge nor specific intention need be proved.
In these cases we trespass altogether at our peril. It is in
general the habit of the law to judge acts by their apparent
tendency, and not by the actor's feelings or desires. I cannot
excuse myself by good motives for infringing another man's
rights, whatever other grounds of excuse may be available;
XXVII. 3
and it is now settled conversely, though after much doubt,
that an act not otherwise unlawful is not, as a rule, made
unlawful by being done from an evil motive. This rule was
known some time ago to apply to the exercise of rights of
property, and such speculative doubt as remained was removed
by the decision of the House of Lords in the leading case of
Allen v. Flood (1898, A.C. 1). We now know that it applies to
the exercise of all common rights. The exceptions are very
few, and must be explained by exceptional reasons. Indeed,
only two are known to the present writer — malicious prose-
cution, and the misuse of a " privileged occasion " which would
justify the communication of defamatory matter if made in good
faith. In each case the wrong lies in the deliberate perversion
of a right or privilege allowed for the public good, though the
precise extent of the analogy is not certain at present. 1 It
must be remembered, however, that the presence or absence
of personal ill will, and the behaviour of the parties generally,
may have an important effect, when liability is proved or
admitted, in mitigating or aggravating the amount of
damages awarded by juries and allowed by the court to be
reasonable. It may likewise be noted, by way of caution, that
some problems of criminal law, with which we are not here
concerned, require more subtle consideration. However, it is
hardly ever safe to assume that the bounds of civil and criminal
liability will be found coextensive. Perhaps we may go so far
as to say that a man is neither civilly nor criminally liable for a
mere omission (not being disobedience to a lawful command
which he was bound to obey), unless he has in some way assumed
a special duty of doing the act omitted.
We have already had to mention the existence of grounds
of immunity for acts that would otherwise be wrongful. Such
grounds there must be if the law is to be enforced and justice
administered at all, and if the business of life is to be carried
on with any freedom. Roughly speaking, we find in these
cases one of the following conditions: Either the defendant
was executing a lawful authority; or he was justified by
extraordinary necessity; or he was doing something permitted
by legislation for reasons of superior utility, though it may
produce damage to others, and either with or without special
provisions for compensating damage; or he was exercising a
common right in matters open to free use and competition;
or the plaintiff had, by consent or otherwise, disabled himself
from having any grievance. Pure accident will hardly seem to
any one who is not a lawyer to be a special ground of exemption,
the question being rather how it could ever be supposed to be a
ground of liability. But it was supposed so by many lawyers
down to recent times; the reason lying in a history of archaic
ideas too long to be traced here. Exercise of common rights
is the category where most difficulty arises. Here, in fact,
the point at which a man's freedom is limited by his neighbour's
has to be fixed by a sense of policy not capable of formal
demonstration.
As Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States
has said, we allow unlimited trade competition (so long as it is
without fraud) though we know that many traders must suffer,
and some may be ruined by it, because we hold that free com-
petition is worth more to society than its costs. A state with
different economic foundations might have a different law on this,
as on many other points. This freedom extends not only to the
exercise of one's calling, but to choosing with whom and under
what conditions one will exercise it. Also the law will not inquire
with what motives a common right is exercised; and this applies
to the ordinary rights of an owner in the use of his property
1 It was formerly supposed that an action by a party to a con-
tract against a third person for procuring the other party to break
his contract was within the same class, i.e. that malice must be
proved. But since Allen v. Flood, and the later decision of the
House of Lords in Quinn v. Leathern (1901, A.C. 495), this view
seems untenable. The ground of action is the intentional violation
of an existing legal right; which, however, since 1906, may
be practised with impunity in the United Kingdom " in
contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute"': Trade
Disputes Act, § 3.
II
66
TORTOISE
as well as to the right of every man to carry on his business. 1
Owners and occupiers of immovable property are bound, indeed,
to respect one another's convenience within certain limits.
The maxim or precept Sic utere tuo ul alienum non laedas does
not mean that I must not use my land in any way which can
possibly diminish the profit or amenity of my neighbour's.
That would be false. It is a warning that both his rights and
mine extend beyond being free from actual unlawful entry,
and that if either of us takes too literally the more popular but
even less accurate maxim, " Every man may do as he will with his
own," he will find that there is such a head of the law as nuisance.
From the point of view of the plaintiff, as regards the kind of
damage suffered by him, actionable wrongs may be divided
into four groups. We have some of a strictly personal kind;
some which affect ownership and rights analogous to owner-
ship; some which extend to the safety, convenience and profit of
life generally — in short, to a man's estate in the widest sense;
and some which may, according to circumstances, result in
damage to person, property or estate, any or all of them. Per-
sonal wrongs touching a man's body or honour are assault, false
imprisonment, seduction or " enticing away " of members of
his family. Wrongs to property are trespass to land or goods,
" conversion " of goods (i.e. wrongful assumption of dominion
over them), disturbance of easements and other individual
rights in property not amounting to exclusive possession. Tres-
pass is essentially a wrong to possession; but with the aid of
actions " on the case " the ground has been practically covered.
Then there are infringements of incorporeal rights which, though
not the subject of trespass proper, are exclusive rights of
enjoyment and have many incidents of ownership. Actions,
in some cases expressly given by statute, lie for the piracy of
copyright, patents and trade marks. Wrongs to a man's estate
in the larger sense above noted are defamation (not a strictly
personal wrong, because according to English common law the
temporal damage, not the insult, is, rightly or wrongly, made
the ground of action); deceit, so-called "slander of title"
and fraudulent trade competition, which are really varieties
of deceit; malicious prosecution; and nuisance, which, though
most important as affecting the enjoyment of property, is not
considered in that relation only. Finally, we have the results of
negligence and omission to perform special duties regarding
the safety of one's neighbours or customers, or of the public,
which may affect person, property, or estate generally.
The law of wrongs is made to do a great deal of work which,
in a system less dependent on historical conditions, we should
expect to find done by the law of property. We can claim or
reclaim our movable goods only by complaining of a wrong
done to our possession or our right to possess. There is no
direct assertion of ownership like the Roman vindicatio. The
law of negligence, with the refined discussions of the test and
measure of liability which it has introduced, is wholly modern;
and the same may be said of the present working law of nuisance,
1 The rule that a man's motives for exercising his common
rights are not examinable involves the consequence that advising
or procuring another, who is a free agent, to do an act of this kind
can, a fortiori, not be an actionable wrong at the suit of a third
person who is damnified by the act, and that whatever the adviser's
motives may be. This appears to be included in the decision of
the House of Lords in Allen v. Flood. That decision, though not
binding in any American court, is approved and followed in most
American jurisdictions. It is otherwise where a system of coercion
is exercised on a man's workmen or customers in order to injure
him in his business. The extension of immunity to such conduct
would destroy the value of the common right which the law pro-
tects: Quinn v. Leathern. The coercion need not be physical, and
the wrong as a whole may be made up of acts none of which taken
alone would be a cause of action. In this point there is nothing
novel, for it is so in almost every case of nuisance. Conspiracy is
naturally a frequent element in such cases, but it does not appear
to be necessary; if it were, millionaires and corporations might
exceed the bounds of lawful competition with impunity whenever
they were strong enough. The reasons given in Quinn v. Leathern
are many and various, but the decision is quite consistent with
Allen v. Flood. However, the Trade Disputes Act will probably have
its intended effect of reducing the law on this head to relative
insignificance in England.
though the term is of respectable antiquity. Most recent of al]
is the rubric of " unfair competition," which is fast acquiring
great importance.
It will be observed that the English law of torts answers
approximately in its purpose and contents to the Roman law
of obligations ex delicto and quasi ex delicto. When we have
allowed for the peculiar treatment of rights of property in the
common law, and remembered that, according to one plausible
theory, the Roman law of possession itself is closely connected
in its origin with the law of delicts, we shall find the corre-
spondence at least as close as might be expected a priori. Nor
is the correspondence to be explained by borrowing, for this
branch of the common law seems to owe less to the classical
Roman or medieval canon law than any other. Some few
misunderstood Roman maxims have done considerable harm in
detail, but the principles have been worked out in all but
complete independence.
A list of modern books and monographs will be found at the
end of the article on " Torts " by the present writer in the Encyclo-
paedia of the Laws of England (2nd ed.). Among recent editions
of works on the law of torts and new publications the following may
be mentioned here: Addison, by W. E. Gordon and W. H. Griffith
(8th ed., 1906); Clerk and Lindsell, by Wyatt Paine (4th ed.,
1906); Pollock (8th ed., 1908); Salmond, The Law of Torts (2nd ed.,
1910). In America: Burdick, The Law of Torts (1905); Street, The
Foundations of Legal Liability (1906), 3 vols, of which vol. i. is
on Tort. (F. Po.)
TORTOISE. Of the three names generally used for this order
of reptiles, viz. tortoise, turtle and terrapin, the first is derived
from the Old French word tortis, i.e. twisted, and was probably
applied first to the common European species on account of
its curiously bent forelegs. Turtle is believed to be a corruption
of the same word, but the origin of the name terrapin is un-
known: since the time of the navigators of the 16th century it
has been in general use for fresh-water species of the tropics,
and especially for those of the New World. The name tortoise
is now generally applied to the terrestrial members of this group
of animals, and that of turtle to those which live in the sea or
pass a great part of their existence in fresh water. They consti-
tute one of the orders of reptiles, the Chelonia: toothless reptiles,
with well developed limbs, with a dorsal and a ventral shell
composed of numerous bony plates, large firmly fixed quadrates,
a longitudinal anal opening and an unpaired copulatory organ.
The whole shell consists of the dorsal, more or less convex carapace
and the ventral plastron, both portions being joined laterally by
the so-called bridge. The carapace is (with the exception of
Sphargis) formed by dermal ossifications which are arranged in
regular series, viz. a median row (1 nuchal, mostly 8 neurals and
1-3 supracaudal or pygal plates), a right and left row of costal
plates which surround and partly replace the ribs, and a consider-
able number (about 11 pairs) of marginal plates. The plas-
tron consists of usually 9, rarely 11, dermal bones, viz. paired
epi-, hyo-, hypo- and xiphi-plastral plates and the unpaired
endo-plastral ; the latter is homologous with the interclavicle, the
epi-plastra with the clavicles, the rest with so-called abdominal
ribs of other reptiles.
In most Chelonians the bony shell is covered with a hard epi-
dermal coat, which is divided into large shields, commonly called
" tortoiseshell." These horny shields or scutes do not correspond
in numbers and extent with the underlying bones, although there
is a general, vague resemblance in their arrangement; for instance,
there is a neural, a paired costal and a paired marginal series.
The terminology may be learned from the accompanying illus-
trations (figs. I and 2) "■-...-,.
The integuments of the neac, neck, tail and limbs are either
soft and smooth or scaly or tubercular, frequently with small osseous
nuclei.
All the bones of the skull are suturally united. The dentary
portion of the mandible consists of one piece only, both halves
being completely fused together. The pectoral arch remains
separate in the median line ; it consists of the coracoids, which slope
backwards, and the scapulae, which stand, upright and often abut
against the inside of the first pair of costal plates. Near the glenoid
cavity for the humerus arises from the scapula a long process which
is directed transversely towards its fellow; it represents the acromial
process of other vertebrates, although so much enlarged, and is
neither the precoracoid, nor the clavicle, as stated by the thought-
less. The tail is still best developed in the Chelydridae, shortest ir
the Trionychoidea. Since it contains the large copulatory organ
it is less reduced in the males. No Chelonians possess the slightest
TORTOISE
67
traces of teeth, but their jaws are provided with horny sheaths, with
hard and sharp edges, forming a beak.
The number of Chelonians known at present may be estimated
at about 200, the fresh-water species being far the most numerous,
and are abundant in well-watered districts of the tropical and
sub-tropical zones. Their number and variety decrease beyond
the tropics, and in the north they disappear entirely about the
50th parallel in the western and about the 56th in the eastern
hemisphere, whilst in the southern hemisphere the terrestrial
forms seem to advance to 36° S. only. The marine turtles,
which are spread over the whole of the equatorial and sub-tropical
seas, sometimes stray beyond those limits. As in other orders
Epidermal shields: —
CO,
Costals.
".
Vertebrals.
m,
Marginals.
?.
Gulars.
PC
Postgulars or humerals
P,
Pectorals.
ab,
Abdominals.
pa,
Preanals or femorals.
an,
Anals.
FlGS. I, 2. — Shell of Testudo pardalis, to show the divisions of
the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the
osseous carapace, these being marked by dotted lines. Fig. I,
Upper or dorsal aspect. Fig. 2, Lower or ventral aspect.
Bones of the Carapace : —
co l , Costals.
we, Neurals.
nu. Nuchal.
py, Pygals.
m 1 , Marginals.
ent, Entoplastron.
ep, Epiplastron.
hyo, Hyoplastron.
hyp, Hypoplastron.
xyp, Xiphiplastron.
of reptiles, the most specialized and the largest forms are
restricted to the tropics (with the exception of Macroclemmys) ;
but, unlike lizards or snakes, Chelonians are unable to exist in
sterile districts or at great altitudes.
They show a great divergence in their mode of life — some
living constantly on land, others having partly terrestrial
partly aquatic habits, others again rarely leaving the water
or the sea. The first-mentioned, the land tortoises proper, have
short club-shaped feet with blunt claws, and a very convex,
heavy, completely ossified shell. In the fresh-water forms
the joints of the limb bones are much more mobile, the digits
distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a membrane
or web; their shell is less convex, and is flattened, and more
or less extensive areas may remain unossified, or transparent
windows are formed with age, for instance in Batagur. As a
rule, the degree of development of the interdigital web and of
convexity of the shell indicates the prevalence of aquatic or
terrestrial habits of a species of terrapin. Finally, the marine
turtles have paddle-shaped limbs resembling those of Cetaceans.
Land tortoises are sufficiently protected by their carapace,
and therefore have no need of any special modification of
structure by means of which their appearance would be assimi-
lated to the surroundings and thus give them additional
security from their enemies. These, however, are few in number.
On the other hand, among the carnivorous terrapins and fresh-
water turtles instances of protective resemblance are not
scarce, and may even attain to a high degree of specialization,
as in Chelys, the matamata. The colours of land tortoises are
generally plain, or in yellow and brown patterns, whilst
those of many terrapins are singularly varied, bright and
beautiful, especially in the very young, but all this beauty is
lost in the adult of many species.
Chelonians are diurnal animals; only a few are active during
the night, habitually or on special occasions, as, for instance,
during oviposition. Land tortoises are slow in all their move-
ments, but all kinds living in water can execute rapid motions,
either to seize their prey or to escape from danger. All
Chelonians are stationary, residing throughout the year in
the same locality, with the exception of the marine turtles,
which periodically migrate to their breeding-stations. Species
inhabiting temperate regions hibernate.
Land tortoises, a few terrapins, and some of the marine
turtles are herbivorous, the others carnivorous, their prey con-
sisting chiefly of fish, frogs, molluscs, and other small aquatic
animals; some, e.g. Clemmys insculpta and Cisludo Carolina,
have a mixed vegetable and animal diet.
All Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are generally covered
with a hard shell, mostly elliptical, rarely quite round, as in the
case of the marine turtles. The various modifications, and also
the not uncommon individual variations, in the composition of
the carapace plates and the number and disposition of the shields,
are very significant. They show an unmistakable tendency
towards reduction in numbers, a concentration and simplification
of the shell and its covering shields. We can to a certain extent
reconstruct a generalized ancestral tortoise and thereby narrow
the wide gap which separates the Chelonia from every other reptilian
order. The early Chelonians possessed most likely more than
five longitudinal dorsal rows of plates. The presence of several
small supramarginal shields in Macroclemmys may be an indication
that the total number of longitudinal rows was originally at least
seven. The number of transverse rows, both of plates and shields, was
also greater. We can account for at least twelve median plates and
as many pairs of marginals, but for onlv eieht median and eight pairs
of costal shields (individual variations observed in Thalassochelys).
It stands to reason that originally each trunk metamere had its full
complement of plates and shields ; consequently that about twelve
trunk metameres partook in the formation of the shell, which,
with subsequent shortening and broadening of the trunk, has under-
gone considerable concentration and reduction, a process which
has reduced the costal plates to seven pairs in the American species
of Trionyx, has completely abolished the neural plates of some
Chelydidae, and has brought down the costal shields to four pairs in
the majority of recent Chelonians. In several species of Testudo
the little nuchal shield is suppressed, thereby reducing the unpaired
median shields to five. The complete absence of shields in the Triony-
chidae and in Carettochelys is also due to a secondary process, which,
however, has proceeded in a different way.
Classification of Chelonia.
H. Stannius in 1854 clearly separated the Trionychoidea
from the rest. E. D. Cope, in 1870, distinguished between
Pleurodira and Cryptodira according to whether the neck,
Stpri or bupri, is bent sidewards, or hidden by being withdrawn
in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane; he also separated
Sphargis as Athecae from all the other Chelonians, for which
L. Dollo, in 1886, proposed the term Thecophora. These terms
are most unfortunate, misleading. Athecae (from #17107,
shell) has reference to the absence of a horny shell-covering in
the leathery turtle; but since the same character applies to
Trionychoidea and to Carettochelys, nobody can guess that
68
TORTOISE
the term Athecae in Dollo's sense refers to the fact that the
shell of the leathery turtle is not homologous with the typical
shell or 617KT) of the other Chelonians. The grouping of the
latter into families recognizable by chiefly internal, skeletal
characters has been effected by G. A. Boulenger. For practical
purposes the following " key " is preferable to those taxonomic
characters which are mentioned in the descriptions of the
different families. The relationships between them may be
indicated as follows: —
fAthecae .
Chelonia-^
[Thecophora
J Chelydidae
( Pelomedusidae
Chelonidae
palatines, and these do not at all ventrally roof over the choanae.
The position of Sphargis in the system is still a moot question.
G. A. Boulenger looks upon it as the sole remnant of a primitive
group in opposition to all the other recent Chelonia; G. Baur con-
sidered it the most specialized descendant of the Chelonidae, a
Sphargidae
("Pelomedusidae
Pleurodira A Chelydidae
L Carettochelydidae
rChelydridae — Derma-
temydidae-Cinosternida
Cryptodira \ Platysternidae
Testudinidae
_ . , ., I Chelonidae
Tnonychoidea
Key to the Families of Chelonia.
Shell covered with horny shields.
Digits distinct, with five or four claws.
Pectoral shields separated from the mar-
ginals by inframarginals.
Tail long and crested. Plastron small
and cruciform Chelydridae
Tail long, covered with rings of shields.
Plastron large Platysternidae
_ ., , { Dermatemydidae
Tal1 short I Cinosternidae
Pectoral shields in contact with the mar-
ginals.
Plastral shields 1 1 or 12, without an inter-
guiar.
Neck retractile in an S-shaped vertical
curve Testudinidae
Plastral shields 1 3, an intergular being
present.
Neck bending sideways under the shell
Limbs paddle-shaped, with one or two
claws
Shell without horny shields, covered with soft
leathery skin.
Digits distinct, broadly webbed, but with
only three claws Trionychoidea
Limbs paddle-shaped.
Shell composed of regular series of bony
plates. Two claws Carettochelydidae
Shell composed of very many small plates
arranged like mosaic. No claws . . Sphargidae.
Sub-order I. Athecae. — The shell consists of a mosaic of numerous
small polygonal osseous plates and is covered with leathery skin
without any horny shields. The limbs are transformed into paddles,
without claws. Marine. Sole representative Sphargis or Derma-
tochelys coriacea, the leathery turtle or luth ; it is the largest of living
Chelonians, surpassing 6 ft. in length, has a wide
distribution over all the intertropical seas, but
is very rare everywhere; a few stragglers have
appeared as far north as the coasts of Long
Island, and those of Great Britain, Holland and
France. It is a curious fact that only adults
and young, but none of intermediate size, happen
to be known. This creature shows many im-
portant features. The vertebrae and ribs are
not fused with, but remain free from, the cara-
pace, and this is fundamentally different from
and not homologous with that of other Chelon-
ians. O. P. Hay has suggested that the mosaic
polygonal components of the shell of Sphargis
are, so to speak, an earlier generation of osteo-
dermal plates than the fewer and larger plates
of the Thecophora, which in them fuse with the
neural arches and the ribs. Sphargis has, how-
ever, the later category in the plastron and in its first neural or nuchal
plate. If this suggestion is correct, this turtle has either lost or
perhaps never had developed the horny shields. The many mosaic
plates comprise larger plates which form an unpaired median,
two pairs of other dorsal, a lateral and three pairs of ventral series
or ridges; thirteen, or when the inner ventral pair fuses, twelve pairs
in all.
The skull, excellently studied by J. F. van Bemmelen, much
resembles that of Chelone, but so-called epipterygoids are absent;
further, the pterygoids, instead of sending lateral arms to the jugals
and maxillaries, are widely separated from these bones by the
Fig. 3. — A portion of the Osseous Plates of the Carapace of
Sphargis coriacea, showing three large keeled plates of one of the
longitudinal ridges of the carapace, with a number of the small
irregular plates on either side of them.
view which has been supported by W. Dames, E. C. Case, and to
a certain extent by J. F. van Bemmelen. For literature, &c,
see L. Dollo, Bull. S. R. Bruxelles (Fevrier 4, 1901).
Sub-order II. Thecophora. — The bony shell is composed of
several longitudinal series of plates (on the dorsal side a median
or neural, a paired lateral or costal series, and marginal plates).
With few exceptions this shell is covered with large horny scutes
or shields.
Super-family 1. Cryptodira. — The neck, if retractile, bends in
an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. The pelvis is not fused
with the shell, and this is covered with large horny shields, except
in Carettochelys.
Family I . Chelydridae. — The plastron is rather narrow, and cross-
shaped ; the bridge is very narrow and is covered by a pair of shields,
the displaced abdominals, which are separated from the marginals
by a few inframarginals. The limbs, neck and head are so stout
that they cannot completely be withdrawn into the shell. The
tail is very long. Only two genera with three species, confined to
America. Chelydra serpentina, the " snapping turtle," ranging
from the Canadian lakes through the United States east of the
Rockies; closely allied is C. rossignoni of Central America and
Ecuador. Macroclemmys temmincki, the " alligator turtle," is
the largest known fresh-water Chelonian, its shell growing to a length
Fig. 4. — The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina).
of 3 ft. It is characterized by the three series of strong prominent
keels along the back; it inhabits the whole basin of the Mississippi
and Missouri rivers.
Family 2. Dermatemydidae. — The pectoral shields are widely
separated from the marginals by inframarginals, the gulars are
small or absent, and the tail is extremely short. Only a few species,
in Central America. The plastron is composed of nine plates.
The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes like those of the
Chelydridae. One or more of the posterior costal plates meet in
the middle line. The shell of these aquatic, broadly web-fingered
tortoises, is very flat and the covering shields are thin. They feed
TORTOISE
69
upon leaves, grass and especially fruit. Staurotypus, e.g. salvini
with 23, Dermatemys, e.g. mawi, with 25 marginal shields.
Family 3. Cinosternidae. — Closely allied to the two previous
families from which Cinosternum, the only genus, differs chiefly
by the absence of the endo-plastral plate. Inframarginals are
present. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes. The
neural plates are interrupted by the meeting of several pairs of the
costal plates. Twenty-three marginal shields. In some species the
skin of the legs and neck is so baggy that these parts slip in, the
skin rolling off, when such a turtle withdraws into its shell. In
some the plastron is hinged and the creature can shut itself up tightly,
e.g. C. leucostoma of Mexico; in others the plastron leaves gaps,
or it is narrow and without hinges, e.g. C. odoratum, the mud turtle
or stinkpot terrapin of the eastern half of North America. About
a dozen species, mostly Central American.
Family 4. Platysternidae. — Platysternum megacephalum, the only
species, from Burma to southern China. The total length of these
thick-headed, very long-tailed turtles is about I ft., only 5 in.
belonging to the shell. The plastron is large, oblong, not cruci-
form, composed of nine plates. The nuchal is devoid of rib-like
processes. A unique arrangement is that the jugals are completely
shut off from the orbits owing to the meeting of the post-frontals
with the maxillaries.
Family 5. Testudinidae. — The shell is always covered with well-
developed shields; those which cover the plastral bridge are in
direct contact with the marginals. The plastron is composed
of nine bones. The digits have four or five claws. The neck is
completely retractile.
This family contains the majority of tortoises, divided into as
many as 20 genera. These, starting with Emys as the least special-
ized, can be arranged in two main diverging lines, one culminating
in the thoroughly aquatic Batagur, the other in the exclusively
terrestrial forms. Emys, with the plastron movably united to the
carapace; with well-webbed limbs, amphibious. E. orbicularis or
europaea was, towards the end of the Pleistocene period, distributed
over a great part of middle Europe, remains occurring in the peat
of England, Belgium, Denmark and Sweden; it is now withdrawing
eastwards, being restricted in Germany to isolated localities east
of Berlin, but it reoccurs in Poland and Russia, whence it extends
into western Asia ; it is common in south Europe. The other species,
E. blandingi, lives in Canada and the north-eastern states of the
Union. Clemmys with the plastron immovably united to the cara-
pace; temperate holarctic region, e.g. C. caspica, C. leprosa in
Spain and Morocco; C. insculpta, in north-east America. Mala-
codemmys with a few species in North America, e.g. M. terrapin,
the much prized " diamond-back. " Chrysemys with many American
species, e.g. Ch. picta, the " painted terrapin " and C. concinna,
most of them very handsomely coloured and marked when still
young. Batagur and Kachuga in the Indian sub-region.
Cistudo Carolina, the box tortoise of North America, with the
plastron divided into an anterior and a posterior movable lobe, so
that the creature can shut itself up completely. Although essen-
tially by its internal structure a water tortoise, it has become
absolutely terrestrial in habits, and herewith agree the high-
backed instead of depressed shell, the short webless fingers and its
general coloration. It has a mixed diet. The eyes of the males
are red, those of the females are brown. From Long Island to
Mexico. Cinixys, e.g. belliana of tropical Africa, has the posterior
portion- of the carapace movably hinged. Pyxis arachnoides of
Madagascar has the front-lobe of the plastron hinged.
Testudo, the main genus, with about 40 species, is cosmopolitan
in tropical and sub-tropical countries, with the exception of the whole
of the Australian and Malay countries; most of the species are
African. T. graeca, in Mediterranean countries and islands. T.
marginata in Greece with the posterior margin of the carapace
much flanged or serrated, and T. ibera or mauritanica from Morocco
to Persia; both differ from T. graeca by an unpaired supracaudal,
marginal shield, and by the possession of a strong, conical, horny
tubercle on the hinder surface of the thigh. With age the posterior
portion of the plastron develops a transverse ligamentous hinge.
T. polyphemus, the " gopher " of southern United States, lives in
pairs in self-dug burrows. T. tabulata is one of the few South
American terrestrial tortoises.
Of great interest are the so-called gigantic land tortoises. In
former epochs truly gigantic species of the genus Testudo had a wide
and probably more continuous distribution. There was T. atlas,
of the Pliocene of the Sivalik hills with a skull nearly 8 in. long,
but the shell probably measured not more than 6 ft. in length,
the restored specimen in the Natural History Museum at South
Kensington being exaggerated. T. perpigniana of Pliocene France
was also large. Large land tortoises, with a length of shell of
more than 2 ft., became restricted to two widely separated regions
of the world, viz. the Galapagos Islands (called thus after the Spanish
galapago, i.e. tortoise), and islands in the western Indian Ocean
viz. the Mascarenes (Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez) and Aldabra.
When they became extinct in Madagascar is not known, but
T. grandidieri was a very large kind, of apparently very recent date.
At the time of their discovery those smaller islands were un-
inhabited by man or any predaceous mammal. It was on these
peaceful islands that land tortoises lived in great numbers; with
plenty of food there was nothing for them to do but to feed, to
propagate, to grow and to vary. Most of the islands were or are
inhabited by one or more typical, local forms. As they provided,
like the equally ill-fated dodo and solitaire, a welcome provision
of excellent meat, ships carried them about, to be slaughtered as
occasion required, and soon almost exterminated them; some
were occasionally liberated on other islands, for instance, on the
Seychelles and on the Chagos, or they were left as presents, in
Ceylon, Java or on Rotuma near the Fijis. Thus it has come to
pass that the few survivors have been very much scattered. The
small genuine stock at Aldabra is now under government protection,
in a way. A large male of T. gigantea or elephantina or hololissa
or ponderosa, was brought to London and weighed 870 lb; another
specimen had in 1908 been living at St Helena for more than one
hundred years. A specimen of T. daudini, native of the South
Island of Aldabra, was known for many years on Egmont Island,
one of the Chagos group, then it was taken to Mauritius and then
to England, where of course it soon died ; its shell measures 55 in.
in a straight line, and it weighed 560 lb. The type specimen of
T. sumeirei, supposed to have come originally from the Seychelles,
was in 1908 still kept in the barrack grounds at Port Louis, Mauri-
tius, and had been known as a large tortoise for about 150 years.
T. vosmaeri was a very thin-shelled species in Rodriguez. Of the
Galapagos species T. ephippium still survives on Duncan Island;
T. abingdoni lived on Abingdon Island; of T. elephantopus or
vicina, G. Baur still collected 21 specimens in 1893 on Albemarle
Island. One monster of this kind is said to have measured 56 in.
over the curve of the carapace, with a skull a little more than 7 in.
in length. All the Galapagos species are remarkable for their
comparatively small head and the very long neck, which is much
larger and more slender than that of the eastern species.
Family 6. Chelonidae. Marine turtles, with only two recent
genera, with three widely distributed species. The limbs are paddle-
shaped, with only one or two claws, and the shell is covered with
horny shields. The neck is short and incompletely retractile.
The parietals, post-frontals, squamosals, quadrato-jugals, and jugals
are much expanded and form an additional or false roof over the
temporal region of the skull.
The Chelonidae are a highly specialized offshoot of the Cryptodira,
adapted to marine life. Fundamentally they agree most with the
Testudinidae, and there is nothing primitive about them except
that they still possess complete series of inframaxginal shields.
Chelone, with only 4 pairs of costal shields, with 5 neurals and
a broad nuchal. C. mydas s. viridis, the " green or edible turtle,"
Fig. 5. — Green Turtle {Chelone mydas).
has, when adult, a nearly smooth shell. It attains a length of
nearly 4 ft., and may then weigh more than three hundredweight.
Their food consists of algae, and of Zostera marina. Their capture
forms a regular pursuit wherever they occur in any numbers.
Comparatively few are caught in the open sea, others in staked
nets, but the majority are intercepted at well-known periods and
localities where they go ashore to deposit their eggs. These are
round, with a parchment-like shell and buried in the sand, above
the high-tide mark, as many as 100 to 250 being laid by one female.
They are eagerly searched for and eaten. The famous turtle-
soup is made not only of the meat and the fat, but also from the
thick and gelatinous layer of subcutaneous tissue which lines the
inside of the shell. Only. the females are eaten; the males, recogniz-
able by the longer tail, are rejected at the London market. This
species inhabits the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
C. imbricata, the " hawksbill turtle. " The shields are thick,
strongly overlapping each other from before backwards, but in
old specimens the shields lose their keel, flatten and become juxta-
posed. The horny cover of the upper jaw forms a hooked beak.
This species lives upon fish and molluscs and is not eaten; but
is much persecuted for the horny shields which yield the
7o
TORTOISE
" tortoise-shell, " so far as this is not a fraudulent imitation. When
heated in oil, or boiled, the shields (which singly are not thick enough
to be manufactured into larger articles) can be welded together
under pressure and be given any desired shape. The " hawksbill "
Fig. 6. — Hawksbill Turtle {Chelone imbricata).
ranges over all the tropical and sub- tropical seas and scarcely reaches
3 ft. in length, but such a shell yields up to 8 lb of tortoiseshell.
Thalassochelys caretta, the " loggerhead, " has normally five pairs
of costal shields, but whilst the number of shields in the genus
Chelone is very constant, that of the loggerhead varies individually
to an astonishing extent. The greatest number of neurals ob-
served, and counting the nuchal as the first, is 8, and 8 pairs of
costal, in all 24; the lowest numbers are 6 neurals with 5 pairs of
costals; odd costals are frequent. The most interesting facts are
that some of the supernumerary shields are much smaller than the
others, sometimes mere vestiges in all stages of gradual suppression,
and that the abnormalities are much more common in babies and
small specimens than in adults. The importance of these ortho-
genetic variations has been discussed by H. Gadow in A. Willey's
Zoolog. Results, pt. iii. p. 207-222, pis. 24, 25 (Cambridge 1899).
Fig. 7.— Loggerhead {Thalassochelys caretta).
The " loggerhead " is carnivorous, feeding on fish, molluscs and
crustaceans, and is not esteemed as food. A great part of the
turtle-oil which finds its way into the market is obtained from it;
its tortoiseshell is of an inferior quality. Besides all the inter-
tropical seas it inhabits the Mediterranean, and is an accidental
visitor of the western coasts of Europe. The old specimen captured
on the Dutch coast in 1894 contained the enormous number of
1 1 5" eggs.
Super-family 2. Pleurodira. — The lon^ neck bends laterally and
is tucked away between the anterior portion of the carapace and the
plastron. The dorsal and ventral ends of the pelvis are anchylosed
to the shell. Fresh-water tortoises of South America, Australia,
Africa and Madagascar.
Fig. 8. — The Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) with side view of
head, and separate view of plastron.
Family 1. Pelomedusidae. — Neck completely retractile. Carapace
covered with horny shields, of which the nuchal is wanting. Plastron
composed of 11 plates. With 24 marginal and 13 plastral shields,
Fig. 9. — Lower view of Trionyx euphratica.
inclusive of a conspicuous intergular. Sternothaerus in Africa and
Madagascar. Pelomedusa galeata in Madagascar and from the Cape
to the Sinaitic peninsula. Podocnemis is common in tropical
South America, e.g. P. expansa of Brazilian rivers, noteworthy for
TORTOISESHELL— TORTONA
7 1
the millions of eggs which are, or were, annually collected for the
sake of their oil. Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazon)
gives a most interesting account of these turtles, which are entirely
frugivorous.
Family 2. Chelydidae. — The neck, when bent, remains partly
exposed. Shell covered with shields. Plastron composed of 9
plates, but covered with 13 shields. This family, still represented
by nearly 30 species, with 8 genera, is found in South America
and in Australia. Chelys fimbriata, the " matamata " in the rivers of
Guiana and North Brazil ; total length about 3 ft. ; with animal
diet. Hydromedusa, e.g. tectifera, with very long neck, in Brazil,
much resembling Chelodina, e.g. longicollis of the Australian region.
Family 3. Carettochelydidae. — Carettochelys insculpta, the only
species, in the Fly river of New Guinea; still imperfectly known.
This peculiar turtle seems to stand in the same relation to the Chely-
didae and to the Trionychidae as do the Chelonidae to the Testu-
dinidae by the transformation of the limbs into paddles with only two
claws, and the complete reduction of the horny shields upon the
shell, which is covered with soft skin. The plastron is composed
of 9 plates; the 6 neural plates are all separated from one another
by the costals. The premaxilla is single, as elsewhere only in
Fig. 10. — Upper view of the Turtle of the Euphrates (Trionyx
euphratica).
Chelys and in the Trionychidae. The neck is short and non-retractile.
Length of shell about 18 in.
Super-family 3. Trionychoidea. — The shell is very flat and much
smaller than the body, and covered with soft leathery skin, but
traces of horny structures are still represented, especially in the
young of some species, by numerous scattered little spikes on the
back of the shell and even on the soft parts of the back. The limbs
are short, broadly webbed and only the three inner digits are pro-
vided with claws. Head and neck are retractile, bending in a sig-
moid curve in a vertical plane. The jaws are concealed by soft
lip-like flaps and the nose forms a short soft proboscis. The tem-
poral region is not covered in by any arches ; the quadrate is trumpet-
shaped as in the Chelydidae, but the jugular arch is complete.
The pelvis is not anchylosed to the shell. The carapace is much
reduced in size, the ribs extending beyond the costal plates, and
there are no marginals; except in the African Cyclanorbis the
neural plates form a continuous series. All the nine elements of
the plastron are deficient and but very loosely connected with each
other. Most of these reductions in the skeletal and tegumentary
armature are the result of life in muddy waters, in the bottom of
which these creatures bury themselves with only the head exposed.
They feed upon aquatic animals; those which are partial to hard-
shelled molluscs soon wear down the sharp horny edges of theiaws,
and thick horny crushing pads are developed in their stead. They
only crawl upon land in order to lay their round brittle eggs.
Trionyxes inhabit the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America.
Trionyx ferox, the " soft-shelled turtle," in the whole of the Missis-
sippi basin and in the chain of the great northern lakes. T. triunguis
in Africa, the largest species, with a length of shell of 3 ft. T.
hurum and T. gangeticus are the commonest Indian species. The
young are ornamented with two or three pairs of large, round,
ocellated spots on the back. (H. F. G.)
TORTOISESHELL. The tortoiseshell of commerce consists
of the epidermic plates covering the bony carapace of the
hawksbill turtle, Chelonia imbricata, the smallest of the sea
turtles. The plates of the back or carapace, technically called
the head, are 13 in number, 5 occupying the centre, flanked
by 4 on each side. These overlap each other to the extent of
one-third of their whole size, and hence they attain a large size,
reaching in the largest to 8 in. by 13 in., and weighing as
much as 9 oz. The carapace has also 24 marginal pieces,
called hoofs or claws, forming a serrated edge round it; but these,
with the plates of the plastron, or belly, are of inferior value. The
plates of tortoiseshell consist of horny matter, but they are
harder, more brittle, and less fibrous than ordinary horn.
Their value depends on the rich mottled colours they display — a
warm translucent yellow, dashed and spotted with rich brown
tints — and on the high polish they take and retain. The finest
tortoiseshell is obtained from the Eastern Archipelago, par-
ticularly from the east coast of Celebes to New Guinea; but the
creature is found and tortoiseshell obtained from all tropical
coasts, large supplies coming from the West Indian Islands and
Brazil.
Tortoiseshell is worked precisely as horn ; but, owing to 'the high
value of the material, care is taken to prevent any waste in its
working. The plates, as separated by heat from the bony skeleton,
are keeled, curved, and irregular in form. They are first flattened
by heat and pressure, and superficial inequalities are rasped away.
Being harder and more brittle than horn, tortoiseshell requires
careful treatment in moulding it into any form, and as high heat
tends to darken and obscure the material it is treated at as low a
heat as practicable. For many purposes it is necessary to increase
the thickness or to add to the superficial size of tortoiseshell, and
this is readily done by careful cleaning and rasping of the surfaces
to be united, softening the plates in boiling water or sometimes by
dry heat, and then pressing them tightly together by means of heated
pincers or a vice. The heat softens and liquefies a superficial film
of the horny material, and that with the pressure effects a perfect
union of the surfaces brought together. Heat and pressure are
also employed to mould the substance into boxes and the numerous
artificial forms into which it is made up.
Tortoiseshell has been a prized ornamental material from very
early times. It was one of the highly esteemed treasures of the
Far East brought to ancient Rome by way of Egypt, and it was
eagerly sought by wealthy Romans as a veneer for their rich furniture.
In modern times it is most characteristically used in the elaborate
inlaying of cabinet-work known as buhl furniture, and in com-
bination with silver for toilet articles. It is also employed as a
veneer for small boxes and frames. It is cut into combs, moulded
into snuff-boxes and other small boxes, formed into knife-handles,
and worked up into many other similar minor articles. The plates
from certain other tortoises, known commercially as turtle-shell,
possess a certain industrial value, but they are either opaque or
soft and leathery, and cannot be mistaken for tortoiseshell. A
close imitation of tortoiseshell can be made by staining translucent
horn or by varieties of celluloid.
TORTOLl, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, on the east
coast, 140 m. N.N.E. of Cagliari by rail (55 m. direct). Pop.
(1901), 2105. It lies 60 ft. above sea-level to the south-west of a
large lagoon, which renders it unhealthy. The harbour is 25 1:1. to
the east, and serves for the export of the wine and agricultural
produce of the Ogliastra. A little to the south of Tortoli was
the station of Sulci on the Roman coast road, known to us only
from the itineraries.
TORTONA (anc. Dertona), a town and episcopal see of Pied-
mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, from which it is
14 m. E. by rail, on the right bank of the Scrivia, at the northern
foot of the Apennines, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901),
11,308 (town); 17,419 (commune). Tortona is on the main line
from Milan to Genoa; from it a main line runs to Alessandria,
a branch to Castelnuovo Scrivia, and a steam tramway to
Sale. Its fortifications were destroyed by the French after
Marengo (1799); the ramparts are now turned into shady
72
TORTOSA— TORTURE
promenades. The cathedral, erected by Philip II., contains a
remarkably fine Roman sarcophagus of the Christian period.
Silk- weaving, tanning and hat-making are the chief industries;
and there is some trade in wine and grain.
Dertona, which may have become a Roman colony as early
as the 2nd century B.C. and - certainly did so under Augustus,
is spoken of by Strabo as one of the most important towns of
Liguria. It stood at the point of divergence of the Via
Postumia (see Liguria) and the Via Aemilia, while a branch
road ran hence to Pollentia. A number of ancient inscriptions
and other objects have been found here. In the middle ages
Tortona was zealously attached to the Guelphs, on which
account it was twice laid waste by Frederick Barbarossa, in
1155 and 1163. (T. As.)
TORTOSA, a fortified city of north-east Spain, in the province
of Tarragona; 40 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of Tarragona,
on the river Ebro 22 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1900), 24,452.
Tortosa is for the most part an old walled town on the left bank
of the river, with narrow, crooked and ill-paved streets, in which
the houses are lofty and massively built of granite. But some
parts of the old town have been rebuilt, and there is a modern
suburb on the opposite side of the Ebro. The slope on which
old Tortosa stands is crowned with an ancient castle, which
has been restored and converted into barracks and a hospital.
All the fortifications are obsolete. The cathedral occupies the
site of a Moorish mosque built in 914. The present structure,
which dates from 1347, has its Gothic character disguised
by a classical facade with Ionic pillars and much tasteless
modernization. The stalls in the choir, carved by Cristobal de
Salamanca in 1 588-1 593, and the sculpture of the pulpits, as well
as the iron-work of the choir-railing and some of the precious
marbles with which the chapels are adorned, deserve notice.
The other public buildings include an episcopal palace, a town-
hall and numerous churches. There are manufactures of
paper, hats, leather, ropes, porcelain, majolica, soap, spirits,
and ornaments made of palm leaves and grasses. There is an
important fishery in the river, and the harbour is accessible to
vessels of 100 tons burden. Corn, wine, oil, wool, silk, fruits
and liquorice (a speciality of the district) are exported. The
city is connected with Barcelona and Valencia by the coast
railway, and with Saragossa by the Ebro valley line; it is also
the terminus of a railway to San Carlos de la Rapita on the
Mediterranean. Near Tortosa are rich quarries of marble and
alabaster.
Tortosa, the Dertosa of Strabo and the Colonia Julia Augusta
Dertosa of numerous coins, was a city of the Ilercaones in
Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors it was of great im-
portance as the key of the Ebro valley. It was taken by Louis
the Pious in 811 (after an unsuccessful siege two years before),
but was soon recaptured. Having become a haunt of pirates,
and exceedingly injurious to Italian commerce, it was made the
object of a crusade proclaimed by Pope Eugenius III. in 1148,
and was captured by Ramon Berenguer IV., count of Barcelona,
assisted by Templars, Pisans and Genoese. An attempt to
recapture the city in 1149 was defeated by the heroism of the
women, who were thenceforth empowered by the count to wear
the red sash of the Order of La Hacha (The Axe), to import
their clothes free of duty, and to precede their bridegrooms at
weddings. Tortosa fell into the hands of the duke of Orleans
in 1708; during the Peninsular War it surrendered in 181 1 to
the French under Suchet, who held it till 1814.
TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist), the general name for
innumerable modes of inflicting pain which have been from time
to time devised by the perverted ingenuity of man, and especially
for those employed in a legal aspect by the civilized nations of
antiquity and of modern Europe. From this point of view
torture was always inflicted for one of two purposes: (1) As a
means of eliciting evidence from a witness or from an accused
person either before or after condemnation; (2) as a part of the
punishment. The second was the earlier use, its function as a
means of evidence arising when rules were gradually formulated
by the experience of legal experts.
Torture as a part of the punishment may be regarded as
including every kind of bodily or mental pain beyond what is
necessary for the safe custody of the offender (with or without
enforced labour) or the destruction of his life — in the language
of Bentham, an " afflictive " as opposed to a " simple " punish-
ment. Thus the unnecessary sufferings endured in English
prisons before the reforms of John Howard, the peine forte
et dure, and the drawing and quartering in executions for
treason, fall without any straining of terms under the category
of torture.
The whole subject is now one of only historical interest as far
as Europe is concerned. It was, however, up to a comparatively
recent date an integral part pf the law of most countries
(to which England, Aragon and Sweden 1 formed honourable
exceptions) — as much a commonplace of law as trial by jury
in England. 2 The prevailing view, no doubt, was that truth was
best obtained by confession, the regina probationum. Where
confession was not voluntary, it must be extorted. Speaking
generally, torture may be said to have succeeded the ordeal
and trial by battle. Where these are found in full vigour,
as in the capitularies of Charlemagne, there is no provision for
torture. It was no doubt accepted reluctantly as being a
quasi judicium Dei, but tolerated in the absence of any better
means of eliciting truth, especially in cases of great gravity, on
the illogical assumption that extraordinary offences must be
met by extraordinary remedies. Popular feeling too, says
Verri, preferred, as causes of evil, human beings who could be
forced to confess, rather than natural causes which must be
accepted with resignation. Confession, as probatio probatissima
and vox vera, was the best of all evidence, and all the machinery
of law was moved to obtain it. The trials for witchcraft
remain on record as a refutation of the theory.
The opinions of the best lay authorities have been almost
unanimously against the use of torture, even in a system where
it was as completely established as it was in Roman law. " Tor-
menta," says Cicero, 3 in words which it is almost impossible to
translate satisfactorily, " gubernat dolor, regit quaesitor, flectit
libido, corrumpit spes, infirmat metus, ut in tot rerum angustiis
nihil veritati loci relinquatur." Seneca says bitterly, " it forces
even the innocent to lie." St Augustine 4 recognizes the fallacy
of torture. " If," says he, " the accused be innocent, he will
undergo for an uncertain crime a certain punishment, and that
not for having committed a crime, but because it is unknown
whether he committed it." At the same time he regards it as
excused by its necessity. The words of Ulpian, in the Digest
of Justinian, 5 are no less impressive: " The torture (quaestio)
is not to be regarded as wholly deserving or wholly undeserving
of confidence; indeed, it is untrustworthy, perilous and decep-
tive. For most men, by patience or the severity of the torture,
come so to despise the torture that the truth cannot be elicited
from them; others are so impatient that they will lie in any
direction rather than suffer the torture; so it happens that they
depose to contradictions and accuse not only themselves but
others." Montaigne's 6 view of torture as a part of the punish-
ment is a most just one: " All that exceeds a simple death
appears to me absolute cruelty; neither can our justice expect
that he whom the fear of being executed by being beheaded or
hanged will not restrain should be any more awed by the imagina-
tion of a languishing fire, burning pincers, or the wheel."
He continues with the curious phrase: " He whom the judge
has tortured (gehennS) that he may not die innocent, dies inno-
cent and tortured." Montesquieu 7 speaks of torture in a most
guarded manner, condemning it, but without giving reasons,
and eulogizing England for doing without it. The system was
condemned by Bayle and Voltaire with less reserve. Among
1 But even in these countries, whatever the law was, torture
certainly existed in fact.
2 Primitive systems varied. There is no trace of it in Babylonian
or Mosaic law, but Egyptian and Assyrian provided for it; and the
story of Regulus seems to show that it was in use at Carthage.
3 Pro Sulla, c. 28. 4 De civ. Dei, bk. xix. c. 6.
6 Dig. xlviii. 18, 23. 6 Essay lxv. (Cotton's trans.)
7 Esprit des lois, bk. vi. c. 17.
TORTURE
73
the Germans, Sonnenfels (1766), and, among the Italians,
Beccaria, 1 Verri 2 and Manzoni 3 will be found to contain most that
can be said on the subject. The influence of Beccaria in rendering
the use of torture obsolete was undoubtedly greater than that of
any other legal reformer. The great point that he makes is
the unfair incidence of torture, as minds and bodies differ in
strength. Moreover, it is, says he, to confound all relations to
expect that a man should be both accuser and accused, and that
pain should be the test of truth, as though truth resided in the
muscles and fibres of a wretch under torture. The result of the
torture is simply a matter of calculation. Given the force of the
muscles and the sensibility of the nerves of an innocent person,
it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him
confess himself guilty of a given crime. Bentham's 4 objection
to torture is that the effect is exactly the reverse of the intention.
" Upon the face of it, and probably enough in the intention of
the framers, the object of this institution was the protection
of innocence; the protection of guilt and the aggravation of the
pressure upon innocence was the real fruit of it." The apologists
of torture are chiefly among jurists. But theoretical objections
to it are often urged by the authors of books of practice, as by
Damhouder, von Rosbach, von Boden, Voet, and others named
below under the head of The Netherlands. It is worthy
of note as illustrative of the feeling of the time that even Bacon 6
compares experiment in nature to torture in civil matters as the
best means of eliciting truth. Muyart de Vouglans 6 derives
the origin of torture from the law of God. Other apologists
are Simancas, bishop of Badajoz, 7 Engel, 8 Pedro de Castro, 9
and in England Sir R. Wiseman. 10
Greece. — The opinion of Aristotle was in favour of torture as a
mode of proof. " It is," he says, " a kind of evidence, and appears
to carry with it absolute credibility because a kind of constraint
is applied." It is classed as one of the " artless persuasions "
(&Tex voi Tr£o-ms). n " It was the surest means of obtaining evidence,
says Demosthenes. 12 At Athens slaves, and probably at times
resident aliens, were tortured, 13 in the former case generally with
the master's consent, but torture was seldom applied to free citizens, 14
such application being forbidden by a psephism passed in the
archonship of Scamandrius. After the mutilation of the Hermae
in 415 B.C. a proposition was made, but not carried, that it should
be applied to two senators named by an informer. In this particular
case Andocides gave up all his slaves to be tortured. 15 Torture was
sometimes inflicted in open court. The rack was used as a punish-
ment even for free citizens. Antiphon was put to death by this
means. 18 The torture of Nicias by the Syracusans is alluded to by
Thucydides 17 as an event likely to happen, and it was only in order
to avoid the possibility of inconvenient disclosures that he was put
to death without torture. Isocrates and Lysias refer to torture
under the generic name of (rxpe/SXoxrts, but it was generally called
fiaaai'OL, in the plural, like tormenta. As might be expected,
torture was frequently inflicted by the Greek despots, and both
Zeno and Anaxarchus are said to have been put to it by such irre-
sponsible authorities. At Sparta the despot Nabis was accustomed,
as we learn from Polybius, 18 to put persons to death by an instrument
of torture in the form of his wife Apega, a mode of torture no doubt
resembling the Jungfernkuss once used in Germany. At Argos, as
Diodorus informs us (xv. 57), certain conspirators were put to the
torture in 371 B.C. 19
I Dei Delitti e delle pene, c. xvi. 2 Osservazioni sulla tortura.
3 Storia delta Colonna infame. 4 Works, vii. 525.
5 Nov. Org., bk. i. aph. 98. In the Advancement of Learning,
bk. iv. ch. 4, Bacon collects many instances of constancy under
torture.
6 Institute du droit criminel (Paris, 1757).
7 De catholicis institutionibus liber, ad praecavendas et extirpandas
haereses admodum necessarius (Rome, 1575).
8 De tortura ex f oris christianis non proscribenda (Leipzig, 1733).
* Defensa de la tortura (Madrid, 1778).
10 Law of Laws, p. 122 (London, 1686).
II Rhet. i. 15, 26. 12 In Onetum, i. 874.
13 Usually by the diaetetae in the Hephaestaeum, Isocrates,
Trapez. 361.
14 The opinion of Cicero (De partitionibus oratoriis, § 34), that it
was so applied at Athens and Rhodes, seems, as far as regards Athens,
not to be justified by existing evidence.
15 The demand for, or the giving up of, a slave for torture was called
TrpoK\ri(TLs ets fiacravov.
16 In the Ranae of Aristophanes, v. 617, there is a list of kinds of
torture, and the wheel is alluded to in Lysistrata, v. 846.
17 vii. 86. 18 xiii. 7.
19 For the whole subject, see Diet. Ant., s.v. Tormenta.
Rome. — The Roman system was the basis of all subsequent
European systems which recognized torture as a part of their pro-
cedure, and the rules attained a refinement beyond anything
approached at Athens. The law of torture was said by Cicero to rest
originally on custom (mores majorum), but there is no allusion to it
in the Twelve Tables. There are frequent allusions to it in the
classical writers, 20 both of the republic and the empire. The law,
as it existed under the later empire, is contained mainly in the titles
De quaestionibus 21 of the Digest and the Code 22 — the former consisting
largely of opinions from the Sentenliae receptae of Paulus, 23 the latter
being for the most part merely a repetition of constitutions contained
in the Theodosian Code. 24 Both substantive law and procedure
were dealt with by these texts of Roman law, the latter, however,
not as fully as in medieval codes, a large discretion being left to the
judges. Torture was used both in civil and criminal trials, but in
the former only upon slaves and freedmen or infamous persons (after
Nov. xc. I, 1, upon ignoli and obscuri if they showed signs of corrup-
tion) — such as gladiators — and in the absence of alia manifesta
indicia, 2 * as in cases affecting the inheritance (res hereditariae). Its
place in the case of free citizens was taken by the reference to the
oath of the party. During the republic torture appears to have
been confined to slaves in all cases, but with the empire a free man
became liable to it if accused of a crime, though in most cases not as
a witness. On an accusation of treason every one, whatever his
rank, was liable to torture, for in treason the condition of all was
equal. 26 The same was the case of those accused of sorcery (magi),
who were regarded as humani generis inimiciP A wife might be
tortured (but only after her slaves had been put to the torture) if
accused of poisoning her husband. In accusations of crimes other
than treason or sorcery, certain persons were protected by the dignity
of their position or their tender age. The main exemptions were
contained in a constitution of Diocletian and Maximian, and included
soldiers, nobles of a particular rank, i.e. eminentissimi and perfectis-
simi, and their descendants to the third generation, and decuriones
and their children to a limited extent (tormenta moderata) — that is
to say, they were subject to the torture of the plumbatae in certain
cases, such as fraud on the revenue and extortion. In addition to
these, priests (but not clergy of a lower rank), children under fourteen
and pregnant women were exempt. A free man could be tortured
only where he had been inconsistent in his depositions, or where
there was a suspicion that he was lying. 23 The rules as to the torture
of slaves were numerous and precise. It was a maxim of Roman
law that torture of slaves was the most efficacious means of obtaining
truth. 29 They could be tortured either as accused or as witnesses
for their masters in all cases, but against their masters only in
accusations of treason, adultery, frauds oft the revenue, coining, and
similar offences (which . were regarded as a species of treason),
attempts by a husband or wife on the life of the other, and in cases
where a master had bought a slave for the special reason that he
should not give evidence against him. The privilege from accusa-
tions by the slave extended to the master's father, mother, wife, or
tutor, and also to a former master. On the same principle a freedman
could not be tortured against his patron. The privilege did not
apply where the slave was joint property, and one of his masters had
been murdered by the other, or where he was the property of a
corporation, for in such a case he could be tortured in a charge against
a member of the corporation. Slaves belonging to the inheritance
could be tortured in actions concerning the inheritance. The adult
slaves of a deceased person could be tortured where the deceased had
been murdered. In a charge of adultery against a wife, her husband's,
her own and her father's slaves could be put to the torture. A
slave manumitted for the express purpose of escaping torture was
regarded as still liable to it. Before putting a slave to torture
without the consent of his master, security must be given to the
master for his value and the oath of calumny must be taken. 30 The
master of a slave tortured on a false accusation could recover double
his value from the accuser. The undergoing of torture had at one
time a serious effect upon the after-life of the slave, for in the time of
Gaius a slave who had been tortured could on manumission obtain
no higher civil rights than those of a dediticius. 31 The rules of
procedure were conceived in a spirit of as much fairness as such rules
could be. Some of the most important were these: The amount
of torture was at the discretion of the judge, but it was to be so
20 An instance is Pliny's letter to Trajan (Epist. x. 97), where he
mentions having put to the torture two Christian deaconesses
(ministrae). The words are confitentes iterum ac tertio interrogavi.
This supports Tertullian's objection to the torture of Christians,
torquemur confitentes (Apol. c. 2).
21 Quaestio included the whole process of which torture was a part.
In the words of Cujacius, Quaestio est interrogatio quae fit per tormenta,
vel de reis, vel de testibus qui facto intervenisse dicuntur.
22 Dig. xlviii. 18; Cod. ix. 41.
23 v. 14, 15, 16. 24 ix. 35.
25 Cod. ix. 8. 3. 26 Ibid. ix. 8, 4.
27 Ibid. ix. 18, 7. 28 Ibid. iv. 20, 13.
29 Ibid. i. 3, 8.
30 Ibid. ii. 59, 1,1. The demand of another man's slave for torture
was postulare.
31 Gaius i. 13.
74
TORTURE
applied as not to injure life or limb. If so applied the judge was
infamis. The examination was not to begin by torture; other
proofs must be exhausted first. The evidence 1 must have advanced
so far that nothing but the confession of the slave was wanting to
complete it. Those of weakest frame and tenderest age were to be
tortured first. Except in treason, the unsupported testimony of a
single witness was not a sufficient ground for torture. The voice
and manner of the accused were to be carefully observed. A spon-
taneous confession, or the evidence of a personal enemy, was to be
received with caution. Repetition of the torture could only be
ordered in case of inconsistent depositions or denial in the face of
strong evidence. There was no rule limiting the number of repeti-
tions. Leading questions were not to be asked. A judge was not
liable to an action for anything done during the course of the examina-
tion. An appeal from an order to torture was competent to the
accused, except in the case of slaves, when an appeal could be made
only by the master. 2 The appellant was not to be tortured pending
the appeal, but was to remain in prison. 3 The quaesitor asked the
questions, the tortores applied the instruments. The principal
forms of torture in use were the equuleus, or rack (mentioned as far
back as Cicero), 4 the plumbatae, or leaden balls, the ungulae, or
barbed hooks, the lamina, or hot plate, the mala mansio, h and the
fidiculae, or cord compressing the arm. Other allusions in the
Digest and Code, in addition to those already cited, may be shortly
noticed. The testimony of a gladiator or infamous person (such as
an accomplice) was not valid without torture. 6 This was no doubt
the origin of the medieval maxims (which were, however, by no
means universally recognized) — Vilitas personae est justa causa
torquendi testem, and Tortura purgatur infamia. Torture could not
be inflicted during the forty days of Lent. 7 Robbers and pirates
might be tortured even on Easter day, the divine pardon being hoped
for where the safety of society was thus assured. 8 Capital punish-
ment was not to be suffered until after conviction or confession under
torture. 9 Withdrawal from prosecution (abolitio) was not to be
allowed as a rule after the accused had undergone the torture. 10 In
charges of treason the accuser was liable to torture if he did not
prove his case. 11 The infliction of torture, not judicial, but at the
same time countenanced by law, was at one time allowed to creditors.
They were allowed to keep their debtors in private prisons, and most
cruelly ill-use them, in order to extort payment. 12 Under the empire
private prisons were forbidden. 13 In the time of Juvenal the Roman
ladies actually hired the public torturers to torture their domestic
slaves. 14 As a part of the punishment torture was in frequent use.
Crucifixion, mutilation, exposure to wild beasts in the arena and
other cruel modes of destroying life were common, especially in the
time of the persecution of the Christians under Nero. 15 Crucifixion
as a punishment was abolished by Constantine in 315, in veneration
of the memory of Him who was crucified for mankind. On the other
hand, where the interests of the Church were concerned the tendency
was in favour of greater severity. Thus, by the Theodosian Code,
a heretic was to be flogged with lead (contusus plumbo) before
banishment, 16 and Justinian made liable to torture and exile any one
insulting a bishop or priest in a church, or saying litany, if a layman. 17
1 The evidence on which the accused might be tortured was
expressed in Roman law by the terms argumentum and indicium
(used technically as early as Cicero, Verres, i. 10 and 17). The
latter term, as will be seen, afterwards became one of the most
important in the law of torture, but the analysis of indicium is later
than Roman law. Indicium was not quite the same thing as semi-
plena probatio, though the terms appear to be occasionally used as
synonyms. Indicium was rather the foundation or cause of
probatio, whether plena or semiplena. An indicium or a concurrence
of indicia might, according to circumstances, constitute a plena or
semiplena probatio. The phrase legitima indicia was sometimes used.
In Sir T. Smith's work, c. 24 (see below), index means a prisoner
acting as an approver under torture. Tormentum, tortura and
quaestio appear to be equivalent terms. The medieval jurists
derived the first of these from torquere mentem, an etymology as false
as testamentum from testatio mentis {Inst. ii. 10 pr.).
2 Dig. xlix. i. 15. 3 Cod. vii. 62, 12.
4 Milo, lvii.
6 Of doubtful meaning, but perhaps like the " Little Ease " of the
Tower of London.
6 Dig. xxii. 5, 21, 2. 7 Cod. iii. 12, 6.
8 Ibid. iii. 12, 10. 9 Ibid. ix. 47, 16.
10 Ibid. ix. 42, 3. u Ibid. ix. 8, 3.
12 See, for instance, Livy vi. 36. 13 Cod. i. 4, 23; ix. 5.
14 Ibid. vi. 480.
15 As an example of such punishments, cf. the well-known lines
of Juvenal (Sat. i. 155): —
" Taeda lucebis in ilia,
Qua stantes ardent qui fixo,gutture fumant."
For other poetical allusions, see vi. 480, xiv. 21; Lucr. iii. 1030;
Propert. iv. 7, 35.
16 xvi. 53.
17 Nov. cxxiii. 31. On the subject of torture in Roman law
reference may be made to Wasserscheben, Historia quaestionum
per tormenta apud Romanos (Berlin, 1836); H. Wallon. Histoire de
I'esclavage duns Vantiquite (Paris, 1879); Mommsen, Romisches
The Leges barbarorum are interesting as forming the link of connexion
between the Roman and the medieval systems. Through them the
Roman doctrines were transmitted into the Roman law countries.
The barbarian codes were based chiefly on the Theodosian Code.
As compared with Roman law there seems to be a leaning towards
humanity, e.g. the provision for redemption of a slave after confession
by s. 40 of the Lex salica. After the edict of Gundobald in 501
the combat rather than the torture became the expression of the
judicium Dei.
The Church. — As far as it could the Church adopted the Roman
law. The Church generally secured the almost entire immunity of
its clergy, at any rate of the higher ranks, from torture by civil
tribunals; 18 but in general, where laymen were concerned all persons
were equal. In many instances councils of the Church pronounced
against torture, e.g. in a synod at Rome in 384. 19 Torture even of
heretics seems to have been originally left to the ordinary tribunals.
Thus a bull of Innocent IV., in 1282, directed the torture of heretics by
the civil power, as being robbers and murderers of souls, and thieves
of the sacraments of God. 20 The Church also enjoined torture for
usury. 21 A characteristic division of torture, accepted by the Church,
but not generally acknowledged by lay authorities, was into spiritual
and corporal, the latter being simply the imposition of the oath of
purgation, the only form originally in use in the ecclesiastical courts.
The canon law contains little on the subject of torture, and that little
of a comparatively humane nature. It laid down that it was no sin in
the faithful to inflict torture, 22 but a priest might not do so with his
own hands, 23 and charity was to be used in all punishments. 24 No
confession was to be extracted by torture 25 and it was not to be
ordered indiciis non praecedentibus . w The principal ecclesiastical
tribunal by which torture was inflicted in more recent times was the
Inquisition. The code of instructions issued by Torquemada in
Spain in 1484 provided that an accused person might be put to the
torture if semiplena probatio existed against the accused — that is,
so much evidence as to raise a grave and not merely a light presump-
tion of guilt, often used for the evidence of one eye or ear witness of
a fact. If the accused confessed during torture, and afterwards
confirmed the confession, he was punished as convicted ; if he
retracted, he was tortured again, or subjected to extraordinary
punishment. One or two inquisitors, or a commissioner of the Holy
Office, were bound to be present at every examination. Owing to the
occurrence of certain cases of abuse of torture, a decree of Philip II.
was issued, in 1558, forbidding the administration of torture
without an order from the council. But this decree does not appear
to have been fully observed. By the edict of the inquisitor-general
Valdes, in 1561, torture was to be left to the prudence and equity of
the judges. They must consider motives and circumstances before
decreeing torture, and must declare whether it is to be employed in
caput proprium, i.e. to extort a confession, or in caput alienum, i.e.
to incriminate an accomplice. Torture was not to be decreed until
the termination of the process and after defence heard, and the
decree was subject to appeal, but only in doubtful cases, to the Council
of the Supreme. It was also only in doubtful cases that the inquisitors
were bound to consult the council; where the law was clear (and
of this they were the judges) there need be no consultation, and no
appeal was allowed. On ratification twenty-four hours afterwards
of a confession made under torture, the accused might be reconciled,
if the inquisitors believed him to be sincerely repentant. If
convicted of bad faith he might be relaxed, i.e. delivered to the
secular power to be burned. The inquisitors had a discretion to
allow the accused to make the canonical purgation by oath
instead of undergoing corporal torture, but the rule which allows
this to be done at the same time discountenances it as fallacious.
It is remarkable that the rules do not allow much greater efficacy
to torture. They speak of it almost in the terms of Roman law
as dangerous and uncertain, and depending for its effects on
physical strength. 27 Torture had ceased to be inflicted before the
suppression of the Inquisition, and in 1816 a papal bull decreed
that torture should cease, that proceedings should be public, and
that the accuser should be confronted with the accused. The
rules in themselves were not so cruel as the construction put upon
them by the inquisitors. For instance, by Torquemada's instruc-
tions torture could not be repeated unless in case of retractation.
This led to the subtlety of calling a renewed torture a continuation,
Strafrecht, iii. 5 (Leipzig, 1899); Greenidge, Legal Procedure of
Cicero's Time, p. 479 (Oxford, 1901).
18 See Escobar, Theol. Mor. tract, vi. c. 2. They were to be tor-
tured only by the clergy, where possible, and only on indicia of
special gravity.
19 Lea, Superstition and Force, p. 419 (3rd ed., Philadelphia,
1878).
20 Leges et constitutiones contra haerelicos, § 26.
21 Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, ii. 34.
22 Decretum, pt. ii. 23, 4, 45. 23 Ibid. pt. i. 86, 25.
24 Ibid. pt. ii. 12, 2, II. 25 Ibid. pt. ii. 15, 6, I.
26 Decretals, v. 41, 6.
27 The rules will be found in H. C. Lea, Hist, of the Inquisition of
Spain (1906). See also Hist, of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages
(New York, 1888) by the same writer; R.Schmidt, Die Herkunft
des Inquisitionsprocesses (Berlin, 1902).
TORTURE
75
and not a repetition. The rules of Torquemada and of Valdes are
those of the greatest historical importance, the latter forming the
code of the Holy Office until its suppression, not only in Spain, but
in other countries where the Inquisition was established. But
several other manuals of procedure existed before the final perfec-
tion of the system by Valdes. The earliest is perhaps the instruc-
tions for inquisitors (Directorium inquisitorum) compiled a century
earlier than Torquemada by Nicholas Eymerico, grand inquisitor
of Aragon about 1368. 1 Rules of practice were also framed two
centuries later by Simancas, whose position as an apologist has been
already stated. The textbook of procedure of the Italian Inquisi-
tion was the Sacro arsenate. 2 In 1545 and 1550 instructions for the
guidance of inquisitors were issued by Charles V. The liability of
a judge for exceeding the law was not always recognized by the
Inquisition to the same extent as by the lay tribunals. Llorente
gives an instance of a warrant by an inquisitor to a licentiate order-
ing the torture of an accused person, and protesting that, in case
of death or fracture of limbs, the fact is not to be imputed to the
licentiate. 3
Thus far of the law. In practice all the ingenuity of cruelty was
exercised to find new modes of torment. 4 These cruelties led at
times to remonstrance from the civil power. One example is the
edict of Philip II. just mentioned. Another and an earlier one is
an ordonnance of Philip the Fair, in 1302, bidding the Inquisition
confine itself within the limits of the law. 6 At Venice the senate
decreed that three senators should be present as inquisitors.
As the practice of torture became more systematized, it grew to
be the subject of casuistical inquiry by churchmen to an extent far
exceeding the scanty discussion of the question in the text of the
canon law. It will be sufficient here to cite as an example the treat-
ment of it by Liguori, who incorporates the opinions of many of the
Spanish casuists. On the whole, his views appear to be more humane
than the prevailing practice. The object of torture he defines
very neatly as being to turn semiplena into plena probatio. For
this proper indicia are necessary. He then proceeds to decide
certain questions which had arisen, the most interesting of which
deal with the nature of the sin of which the accused and the judge
are guilty in particular instances. A judge sins gravely if he does
not attempt all milder means of discovering truth before resorting
to torture. He sins in a criminal cause, or in one of notable infamy,
if he binds the accused by oath to tell the truth before there is proof
against him. It is the same if without oath he uses threats, terror
or exhibition of torments to confound the witness. 6 If any one, to
avoid grave torments, charges himself with a capital crime, he does
not sin mortally. 7 It was a doubtful question whether he sinned
gravely in such a case. Escobar at an earlier date supported the
morally dangerous view that an inquisitor may follow a probable
opinion in ordering torture, relinquishing a more probable. 8
England. — It is the boast of the common law of England that it
never recognized torture as legal. One, perhaps the chief, reason
for this position taken by the law is the difference of the nature of
the procedure in criminal cases from that in general use in European
countries. To use words more familiar in foreign jurisprudence,
the English system is accusatorial as distinguished from inquisitorial.
In the former the accuser has to prove guilt, in the latter the accused
has to prove innocence. The common law of England has always
shown itself averse from the inquisitorial system, and so (at least
in theory) to the torture which may be regarded as an outcome of
the system whose one end was to obtain a confession from the accused.
The tendency of the small amount of statute law bearing on the
subject is in the same direction. It was provided by Magna Carta,
§ 29, " that no free man . . . should be destroyed in any way unless
by legal judgment of his equals or by the law of the land." On
this Sir E. Coke comments, " No man destroyed, &c, that is, fore-
judged of life or limb, disinherited, or put to torture or death." 9
The act of 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4 enacted that, owing to the frequent
escape of pirates in trials by the civil law, " the nature whereof
is that before any judgment of death can be given against the
offenders they must plainly confess their offence (which they will
never do without torture or pains)," such persons should be tried
by jury before commissioners under the Great Seal. Finally, the
Bill of Rights provided that cruel and unusual punishments ought
not to be inflicted. The opinions of the judges have been invariably
against torture in theory, however much some of them may have
1 An edition was published at Rome in 1558, and a compendium at
Lisbon in 1 762, and by Marchena at Montpellier in 1 82 1.
2 It was by Father Masini, and went through numerous editions
(complete or compendia) from 1558 to 1730. Among other manuals
of practice were those of Carenas Caesar (1655), Moreltet (1762).
3 Llorente c. xiv.
4 Among others were the gradual pouring of water drop by drop
on a particular spot of the body, the tormento de toca, or pouring of
water into a gauze bag in the throat, which gradually forced the
gauze into the stomach, and the pendola, or swinging pendulum,
so graphically described in one of Edgar Poe's tales.
5 Ordonnances des rois, i. 346.
6 Theol. mor. bk. ix. § 202. ' Ibid. § 274.
8 Ibid. v. 3 and 7. 9 2 Inst. 48 b.
been led to countenance it in practice. The strongest authority
is the resolution of the judges in Felton's case (1628), " that he ought
not by the law to be tortured by the rack, for no such punishment
is known or allowed by our law." 10 In accordance with this are
the opinions of Sir John Fortescue, 11 Sir Thomas Smith 12 and Sir
E. Coke. The latter says, " As there is no law to warrant tortures
in this land, nor can they be justified by any prescription, being
so lately brought in." 13 In spite of all this, torture in criminal
proceedings was inflicted in England with more or less frequency
for some centuries, both as a means of obtaining evidence and as
a part of the punishment. But it should be remarked that torture
of the former kind was invariably ordered by the Crown or council,
or by some tribunal of extraordinary authority, such as the Star
Chamber, not professing to be bound by the rules of the common
law. In only two instances was a warrant to torture issued to a
common law judge. 14
A licence to torture is found as early as the Pipe Roll of 34 Hen. II. 16
The Templars were tortured in 13 10 by royal warrant addressed
to the mayor and sheriffs of London. 16 In this case it is recorded that
torture was unknown in England, and that no torturer was to be
found in the realm. 17 A commission was issued concerning the
tortures at Newgate in 1334. 18 The rack in the Tower is said to
have been introduced by the duke of Exeter in the reign of Henry VI.,
and to have been thence called "the duke of Exeter's daughter." 19
In this reign torture seems to have taken its place as a part of
what may be called extraordinary criminal procedure, claimed, and
it may be said tacitly recognized, as exercisable by virtue of the
prerogative, and continued in use down to 1640. 20 The infliction
of torture gradually became more common under the Tudor monarchs.
Under Henry VIII. it appears to have been in frequent use. Only
two cases are recorded under Edward VI., and eight under Mary. 21
The reign of Elizabeth was its culminating point. In the words
of Hallam, " the rack seldom stood idle in the Tower for all the
latter part of Elizabeth's reign." 22 The varieties of torture used at
this period are fully described by Dr Lingard, 23 and consisted of
the rack, the scavenger's daughter, 24 the iron gauntlets or bilboes,
and the cell called " Little Ease." The registers of the council
during the Tudor and early Stuart reigns are full of entries as to
the use of torture, both for state and for ordinary offences. 26 Among
notable prisoners put to the torture were Anne Askew, the Jesuit
Campion, Guy Fawkes 26 and Peacham (who was examined by Bacon
" before torture, in torture and after torture "). 27 The prevalence
of torture in Elizabeth's reign led to the well-known defence at-
tributed to Lord Burghley, " A declaration of the favourable dealing
of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed for the examination of
certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon
them for matter of religion," 1583. 28 The use of torture in England
being always of an extraordinary and extra-judicial nature, it is
10 3 State Trials, 371.
11 De laudibus legum Angliae, c. 22.
12 Commonwealth of England, bk. ii. c. 27 (1583; ed. by L. Alston,
1906). It is curious that Sir T. Smith, with all his hatred of torture,
was directed by a warrant under the queen's seal alone (not through
the council) to torture the duke of Norfolk's servants in 1571. In
a letter to Lord Burghley he pleaded for exemption from so hateful
a task.
13 3 Inst. 35. Nevertheless, in the trials of Lord Essex and
Southampton, Coke is found extolling the queen's mercy for not
racking or torturing the accused (1 State Trials, 1338). (See further
authorities in Pollock and Maitland, Hist, of English Law, ii. 656.)
14 Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of
England (1837), p. 52.
15 L. O. Pike, Hist, of Crime in England, i. 427.
16 Rymer, Foedera, iii. 228, 232.
17 Walter of Hemingford, p. 256.
18 Pike I. 481. M 3 Inst. 34.
20 This is the date of the latest warrant in Jardine's work, but it
was used on three Portuguese at Plymouth during the Common-
wealth (Thurloe iii. 298).
21 It is to be noticed, as Jardine observes, that all these are cases
of an ordinary nature, and afford no. ground for the assertions made
by Strutt and Bishop Burnet that torture was used to heretics as
heretics.
22 Const. Hist. i. 201.
23 Hist, of England, vol. viii. app. note v.
24 These two were exactly opposite in principle. The rack stretched
the limbs of the sufferer; the scavenger's daughter compressed him
into a ball.
25 Fifty-five of these will be found in the appendix to Mr Jardine's
work. An ordinary robber of plate was threatened with torture
in 1567. — Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386.
26 It is not certain whether he was racked, but probably he was,
in accordance with the king's letter: " If he will not otherwise confess
the gentlest tortures are to be first used to him, and so on, step by
step, to the most severe, and so God speed the good work."
27 Dalrymple, Memoirs and Letters of James I. p. 85 ; Macaulay's
essay on the works of Bacon.
28 Lord Somers's Tracts, i. 189.
76
TORTURE
comparatively certain that it could hardly have been applied with
that observation of forms which existed in countries where it was
regulated by law. There were no rules and no responsibility beyond
the will of the Crown or council. This irresponsibility is urged by
Selden 1 as a strong objection to the use of torture. The main
differences between the infliction of torture in England and on the
continent of Europe seem to be that English lawyers made no dis-
tinction of those liable to it, never allowed torture of witnesses, and
elaborated no subtle rules as to plena and semiplena probatio.
So far of what may be called torture proper, to which the common
law professed itself a stranger. There were, however, cases fully
recognized by the common law which differed from torture only
in name. The peine forte et dure was a notable example of this.
If a prisoner stood mute of malice instead of pleading, he was
condemned to the peine, that is, to be stretched upon his back and
to have iron laid upon him as much as he could bear, and more,
and so to continue, fed upon bad bread and stagnant water through
alternate days until he pleaded or died. 2 It was abolished by 12
Geo. III. c. 20. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 enacted that a plea of " not
guilty " should be entered for a prisoner so standing mute. A case
of peine occurred as lately as 1726. At times tying the thumbs
with whip-cord was used instead of the peine. This was said to be
a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the 18th century. 3 In
trials for witchcraft the legal proceedings often partook of the
nature of torture, as in the throwing of the reputed witch into a
pond to see whether she would sink or swim, in drawing her blood, 4
and in thrusting pins into the body to try to find the insensible spot.
Confessions, too, appear to have been often extorted by actual
torture, and torture of an unusual nature, as the devil was supposed
to protect his votaries from the effects of ordinary torture.
Torture as a part of the punishment existed in fact, if not in
name, down to a very recent period. Mutilation as a punishment
appears in some of the pre-Conquest codes, such as those of Alfred,
.<Ethelstan and Canute, in the laws attributed to William the
Conqueror and in the assize of Northampton (1176). Bracton, who
does not notice torture as a means of obtaining evidence, divides
corporal punishment into that inflicted with and without torture. 5
Later instances are the punishment of burning to death inflicted
on heretics under the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14) and' other
acts, and on women for petit treason (abolished by 30 Geo. III.
c. 48), the mutilation inflicted for violence in a royal palace by
33 Hen. VIII. c. 12, the punishment for high treason, which
existed nominally until 1870, the pillory (abolished by 7 Will. IV.
and 1 Vict. c. 23), the stocks, branks and cucking-stool, and the
burning in the hand for felony (abolished by 19 Geo. III. c. 74).
Corporal punishment now exists only in the case of juvenile
offenders and of robbery with violence. It was abolished in the
army by the Army Act 1881. 6 Cruelty in punishment did not
entirely cease in prisons even after the Bill of Rights. See such
cases as R. v. Huggins, 17 State Trials, 298; Castell v. Bambridge,
2 Strange' s Rep. 856.
Scotland. — Torture was long a recognized part of Scottish criminal
procedure, and was acknowledged as such by many acts and warrants
of the Scottish parliament and warrants of the Crown and the privy
council. Numerous instances occur in the Register of the Privy
Council? Two acts in 1649 dealt with torture; one took the form
of a warrant to examine witnesses against William Barton by any
form of probation, 8 the other of a warrant to a committee to inquire
as to the use of torture against persons suspected of witchcraft. 9
The judges in 1689 were empowered by the estates to torture Chiesly
of Dalrye, charged with the murder of the lord president Lockhart,
in order to discover accomplices. In the same year the use of torture
without evidence or in ordinary cases was declared illegal in the
Claim of Right. The careful wording of this will be noticed: it
does not object to torture altogether, but reserves it for cases where
a basis of evidence had already been laid, and for crimes of great
gravity, thus admitting the dangerous principle, founded on Roman
law, that the importance of the crime is a reason for departing from
the ordinary rules of justice. However great the crime, it is no
more certain than in the case of a crime of less gravity that the
person accused was the person who committed it. A warrant issued
in the same year to put to the torture certain persons accused of
conspiring against the government, and also certain dragoons
suspected of corresponding with Lord Dundee. In 1690 an act
passed reciting the torture of William Carstares, a minister, in 1683,
and re-establishing his competency as a witness. 10 The last warrant
appears to be one in 1690 for torturing a man accused of rape and
murder. In 1708 torture in Scotland was finally abolished by 7
1 Ta ble Talk," Trial."
2 Stephen, Hist, of the Criminal Law, i. 297.
3 Stephen i. 300; Kelyng, Reports, p. 27.
4 The superstition was that any one drawing a witch's blood was
free from her power. This is alluded to in Henry VI. pt. i. act i.
sc. 5; " Blood will I draw on thee; thou art a witch."
5 1046. 6 44 Vict. c. 9, s 7.
7 E.g. i. 525, iv. 680, vl. 156. 8 c. 333.
* c. 370.
10 The thumbscrew with which Carstares had been tortured was
afterwards presented to him as a remembrance by the privy council.
Anne c. 21, s 5. Many details of the tortures inflicted will be found
in Pitcairn's Criminal Trials, the introduction to J. Maclaurins'
R. Criminal Cases and J. H. Burton's Narratives from Criminal
Trials. Among other varieties — the nature of some of them can
only be guessed — were the rack, the pilniewinkis, the boot, 11 the
caschie-laws, the lang irnis, the narrow-bore, the pynebankis, and
worst of all, the waking, or artificial prevention of sleep. 12 The
ingenuity of torture was exercised in a special degree on charges
of witchcraft, notably in the reign of James VI., an expert both in
witchcraft and in torture. The act of 1649 already cited shows
that the principle survived him. Under the government of the dukes
of Lauderdale and York torture as a practice in charges of religious
and political offences reached its height. " The privy council was
accustomed to extort confessions by torture; that grim divan of
bishops, lawyers and peers sucking in the groans of each undaunted
enthusiast, in hope that some imperfect avowal might lead to the
sacrifice of other victims, or at least warrant the execution of the
present." 13 With such examples before them in the law, it is scarcely
to be wondered at that persons in positions of authority, especially
the nobility, sometimes exceeded the law and inflicted torture at
their own will and for their own purposes. There are several
instances in the Register of the Privy Council of suits against such
persons, e.g. against the earl of Orkney, in 1605, for putting a son
of Sir Patrick Bellenden in the boots.
Ireland seems to have enjoyed comparative immunity from torture.
It was not recognized by the common or statute law, and the cases
of its infliction do not appear to be numerous. In 1566 the president
and council of Munster, or any three of them, were empowered to
inflict torture, " in cases necessary, upon vehement presumption
of any great offence in any party committed against the Queen's
Majesty." 14 In 1583 Hurley, an Irish priest, was tortured in Dublin
by " toasting his feet against the fire with hot boots." 1E In 1627 the
lord deputy doubted whether he had authority to put a priest
named O'Cullenan to the rack. An answer was returned by Lord
Killultagh to the effect that " you ought to rack him if you saw cause
and hang him if you found reason." u The latest case of peine forte
et dure seems to have been in 1740.
British Colonies and Dependencies. — The infliction of torture in
any British colony or dependency has usually been regarded as
contrary to law, and ordered only by arbitrary authority. It is
true that in the trial of Sir Thomas Picton in 1806, for subjecting,
while governor of Trinidad, a woman named Luisa Calderon to the
torture of the picquet, " one of the grounds of defence was that such
torture was authorized by the Spanish law of the island, but the
accused was convicted in spite of this defence, and the final decision
of the court of king's bench, in 18 12, decreeing a respite of the
defendant's recognizances till further order, was perhaps not so
much an affirmation of the legality in the particular instance as
the practical expression of a wish to spare an eminent public servant. 18
As to India, the second charge against Warren Hastings was extortion
from the begums of Oude by means of the torture of their servants. 19
In the present Indian Penal Code and Evidence Acts there are
provisions intended, as Sir James Stephen says, 20 to prevent the
practice of torture by the police for the purpose of extracting con-
fessions from persons in their custody. 21 In Ceylon torture, which
had been allowed under the Dutch government, was expressly
abolished by royal proclamation in 1799.
In the Channel Islands confessions of persons accused of witch-
craft in the 17th century were frequently obtained by torture. 22
United States. — One instance of the peine forte et dure is known.
It was inflicted in 1692 on Giles Cory of Salem, who refused to
plead when arraigned for witchcraft. 23 The constitution of the
United States provides, in the words of the Bill of Rights, that
cruel and unusual punishments are not to be inflicted. 24 This is
repeated in the constitutions of most states. The infliction of cruel
and unusual punishment by the master or officer of an American
vessel on the high seas, or within the maritime jurisdiction of the
United States, is punishable with fine or imprisonment, or both. 26
There have been a good many decisions on the question of cruel
and unusual punishments; e.g. Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. Rep. 130;
11 Persons subjected to more than usual torture from the boot
were said to be " extremely booted."
12 This seems to have been used in one case in England. Lecky,
Rationalism in Europe, i. 122.
13 Hallam, Const. Hist. iii. 436. See Burnet, Hist, of Own Time,
i. 583 ; and Scotland.
14 Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386.
16 Ibid xi. 263. 16 Jardine, p. 54.
17 In the picquet the sufferer was supported only on the great toe
(which rested on a sharp stake), and by a rope attached to one arm.
18 30 State Trials, 449, besides many pamphlets of the period.
19 See the Report of the Proceedings, vol. i.
20 Stephen, Indian Evidence Act, p. 126.
21 Sections 327-331 of code ; ss: 25-27 of act.
22 J. L. Pitts, Witchcraft in the Channel Islands, p. 9 (Guernsey,
1886). "
23 Bouvier, Law Diet., s.v. " Peine forte et dure."
24 Amendments, art. viii. (1789).
25 Revised Stat. 5347.
TORTURE
77
Territory of New Mexico v. Ketchum, 65 Pacific Rep. 169 (death
penalty for train robbery held not unconstitutional).
Continental European States. — These fall into four main groups,
the Latin, Teutonic, Scandinavian and Slav states respectively.
The principles of Roman law were generally adopted in the first
and second groups.
Latin States. — In France torture does not seem to have existed
as a recognized practice before the 13th century. From that period
until the 17th century it was regulated by a series of royal ordonnances
at first of local obligation, afterwards applying to the whole kingdom.
Torture was used only by the royal courts, its place in the seigneurial
courts being supplied by the judicial combat. The earliest ordonnance
on the subject was that of Louis IX. in 1254 for the reformation of
the law in Languedoc. It enacted that persons of good fame, though
poor, were not to be put to the question on the evidence of one
witness. 1 Numerous other provisions were made between 1254
and 1670, when an ordonnance was passed under Louis XIV., which
regulated the infliction of torture for more than a century. Two
kinds were recognized, the question preparatoire and the question
prealable. The first was used where strong evidence of a capital
crime — strong, but of itself insufficient for conviction — was produced
against the accused. The second was used to obtain a confession
of accomplices after conviction. There was also a mitigated torm
called the presentment, in which the accused was simply bound
upon the rack in terrorem and there interrogated. No person was
exempt on the ground of dignity, but exemption was allowed to
youths, old men, sick persons and others. Counsel for the accused
were usually not allowed. The question preparatoire was abolished
by royal decree in 1780, but in 1788 the parliaments refused to
register a decree abolishing the prealable. But torture of all kinds
was abolished by an ordonnance in 1789. The Declaration of Right
in 1791 (art. viii.) affirmed that the law ought not to establish any
punishments other than such as are strictly and evidently necessary.
In modern law the code penal enacts that all criminals shall be
punished as guilty of assassination who for the execution of their
crimes employ torture. 2 The code also makes it punishable to
subject a person under arrest to torture. 3 The theory of semiplena
probatio was worked out with more refinement than in other systems.
In some parts of France not only were half-proofs admitted, but
quarters and eighths of proofs. 4 Among the numerous cases of
historical interest were those of the Templars in 1307, Villon about
1457, Dolet in 1546, the marquise de Brinvilliers in 1676 and Jean
Calas in 1762. 5
The law as it existed in Italy is contained in a long line of authorities
chiefly supplied by the school of Bologna, beginning with the
glossatores and coming down through the post-glossatores, until the
system attained its perfection in the vast work of Farinaccius,
written early in the 17th century, where every possible question
that could arise is treated with a revolting completeness. One
of the earliest jurists to treat it was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of
Dante. 6 He treats it at no great length. With him the theory of
indicia exists only in embryo, as they cannot be determined by law
but must be at the discretion of the judge. Differing from Bartolus,
he affirms that torture cannot be repeated without fresh indicia.
The writings of jurists were supplemented by a large body of legis-
lative enactments in most of the Italian states, extending from the
constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. down to the 18th century.
It is not until Bartolus (1314-1357) that the law begins to assume
a definite and complete form. In his commentary on book xlviii.
of the Digest he follows Roman law closely, but introduces some
further refinements: e.g. though leading questions may not be
asked in the main inquiry they are admissible as subsidiary. There
is a beginning of classification of indicia. A very full discussion
of the law is contained in the work on practice of Hippolytus de
Marsiliis, 7 a jurist of Bologna, notorious, on his own admission, as
the inventor of the torture of keeping without sleep. He defines
the question as inquisitio veritatis per tormenta et cordis dolorem,
thus recognizing the mental as well as the physical elements in
torture. It was to be used only in capital cases and atrocious crimes.
The works of Farinaccius and of Julius Clarus nearly a century later
were of great authority from the high official positions filled by the
writers. Farinaccius was procurator-general to Pope Paul V.,
and his discussion of torture is one of the most complete of any. 8
It occupies 251 closely printed folio pages with double columns.
The length at which the subject is treated is one of the best proofs
1 Ordonnances des rois, i. 72. 2 s. 303. 3 s. 344.
4 See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 658, note.
5 On the French system generally see Imbertus, Instituliones
forenses gallicae (Utrecht, 1649) ; N. Weiss, La Chambre ardente,
1540-1550 (Paris, 1889). A large number of authorities deal
mainly with the ordonnance of 1670; Muyart de Vouglans, Inst,
crim. (Paris, 1767), and Jousse, Traite de la justice crim. (Paris, 1771),
are examples. F. Siegneux de Correvon, Essai stir Vusage, I'abus,
et les inconveniens de la torture (Geneva, 1768), is one of the
opponents of the system.
6 Cinus Pistorensis, Super codice, de tormentis (Venice, 1493).
7 Practica criminalis quae Averolda nuncupatur (Venice, 1532).
8 Praxis et theorica criminalis, bk. ii. tit. v. quaest. 36-51
(Frankfort, 1622).
of the science to which it had been reduced. The chief feature of
the work is the minute and skilful analysis of indicia, jama, prae-
sumplio, and other technical terms. Many definitions of indicium
are suggested, the best perhaps being conjectura ex probabilibus et non
necessariis orta, a quibus potest abesse Veritas sed non verisimilitudo.
For every infliction of torture a distinct indicium is required.
A single witness or an accomplice constitutes an indicium.
But this rule does not apply where it is inflicted for discovering
accomplices or for discovering a crime Other than that for which
it was originally inflicted. Torture may be ordered in all
criminal cases, except small offences, and in certain civil
cases; such as denial of a depositum, bankruptcy, usury,
treasure trove, and fiscal cases. It may be inflicted on all
persons, unless specially exempted (clergy, minors, &c), and
even those exempted may be tortured by command of the
sovereign. There are three kinds of torture, levis, gravis and
gravissima, the first and second corresponding to the ordinary
torture of French writers, the last to the extraordinary. The
extraordinary or gravissima was as much as could possibly be borne
without destroying life. The judge could not begin with torture;
it was only a subsidium. If inflicted without due course of law,
it was void as a proof. The judge was liable to penalties if he
tortured without proper indicia, if a privileged person, or if to the
extent that death or permanent illness was the result. An immense
variety of tortures is mentioned, and the list tended to grow, for, as
Farinaccius says, judges continually invented new modes of torture
to please themselves. Numerous casuistical questions are treated
at length, such as, what kinds of reports or how much hearsay
evidence constituted fame? Were there three or five grades in
torture? Julius Clarus of Alessandria was a member of the council
of Philip II. To a great extent he follows Farinaccius. He puts
the questions for the consideration of the judge with great clearness.
They are — whether (1) a crime has been committed, (2) the charge
is one in which torture is admissible, (3) the fact can be proved other-
wise, (4) the crime was secret or open, (5) the object of the torture
is to elicit confession of crime or discovery of accomplices. The
clergy can be tortured only in charges of treason, poisoning and
violation of tombs. On the great question whether there are three
or five grades, he decides in favour of five, viz. threats, taking to the
place of torment, stripping and binding, lifting on the rack, racking. 9
Other Italian writers of less eminence have been referred to for the
purposes of this article. The burden of their writings is practically
the same, but they have not attained the systematic perfection of
Farinaccius. Citations from many of them are made by Manzoni
(see below). Among others are Guido de Suzara, Paris de Puteo,
Aegidius Bossius of Milan, Casonus of Venice, Decianus, Follerius
and Tranquillus Ambrosianus, whose works cover the period from the
13th to the end of the 17th century. The law depended mainly
on the writings of the jurists as interpreters of custom. At the
same time in all or nearly all the Italian states and colonies 10 the
customary law was limited, supplemented, or amended by legislation.
That a check by legislative authority was necessary appears from
the glimpses afforded by the writings of the jurists that the letter of
the Taw was by no means always followed. The earliest legislation
after the Roman law seems to be the constitutions of the emperor
Frederick II. for Sicily promulgated in 1231. Torture was abolished
in Tuscany in 1786, largely owing to the influence of Beccaria, whose
work first appeared in 1764, and other states followed, but the puntale
or piquet seems to have existed in practice at Naples up to 1859.
Several instances of the torture of eminent persons occur in Italian
history, such as Savonarola, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno, Cam-
panella. Galileo appears to have only been threatened with the
esame rigoroso. The historical case of the greatest literary interest
is that of the persons accused of bringing the plague into Milan
in 1630 by smearing the walls of houses with poison. An analysis
of the case was undertaken by Verri n and Manzoni, 12 and puts in a
clear light some of the abuses to which the system led in times of
popular panic. Convincing arguments are urged by Manzoni,
after an exhaustive review of the authorities, to prove the ground-
lessness of the charge on which two innocent persons underwent
the torture of the canape, or hempen cord (the effect of which was
partial or complete dislocation of the wrist), and afterwards suffered
death by breaking on the wheel. The main arguments, shortly
stated, are these, all based upon the evidence as recorded, and the
law as laid down by jurists. (1) The unsupported evidence of an
accomplice was treated as an indicium in a case not one of those
exceptional ones in which such an indicium was sufficient. The
evidence of two witnesses or a confession by the accused was neces-
sary to establish a remote indicium, such as lying. (2) Hearsay
evidence was received when primary evidence was obtainable. (3)
The confession made under torture was not ratified afterwards.
(4) It was made in consequence of a promise of impunity. (5) It
was of an impossible crime.
9 Practica criminalis finalis (Lyons, 1637).
10 It is obvious from the allusion at the end of Othello that Shake-
speare regarded torture as possible in Cyprus when it was a Venetian
colony.
11 Osservazioni sulla tortura.
12 Storia della Colonna infame. Neither writer alludes to Beccaria.
7»
TORTURE
In Spain, as in Italy, the law depended partly on the writings of
jurists, partly on legislation. Roman law was carried through the
Visigothic Code and the Fuero juzgo 1 (which repeats it almost
word for word) down to the Siete partidas? This treatise, com-
piled by Alphonso the Wise about 1243, but not promulgated till
1256, amended the previously existing law in the direction of greater
precision. Torment is denned as a manner of punishment which
lovers of justice use, to scrutinize by it the truth of crimes committed
secretly and not provable in any other manner. Repetition was
allowed in case of grave crimes. There were the usual provisions
for the infliction of torture only by a judge having jurisdiction, and
for the liability of the judge for exceeding legal limits. Subsequent
codes did little more than amend the Partidas in matters of pro-
cedure. Torture is not named in the Ordenanzas reales of Ferdinand
and Isabella (1485). The Nueva recopilacion of Philip II. enacted
that torture was to be applied by the alcaldes on due sentence
of the court — even on hidalgos in grave crimes — without regard
to alleged privilege or custom. In the Novisima recopilacion
°f 1775 the only provisions on the subject are that the alcaldes
are not to condemn to torment without preceding sentence
according to law, and that hidalgos are not to be tormented
or suffer infamous punishment. In Aragon, while it was an inde-
pendent state, torture was not in use to the same extent as in other
parts of Spain. It was abolished in the 13th century by the General
Privilege of 1283 except in the case of vagabonds charged with coin-
ing. A statute of 1335 made it unlawful to put any freeman to the
torture. 3 On the other hand, the Aragonese nobility had a power,
similar to the peine forte et dure, of putting a criminal to death by
cold, hunger and thirst. 4 The jurists dealing with the subject are
not as numerous as in Italy, no doubt because Italian opinions were
received as law in all countries whose systems were based on Roman
law. 5 Some of the Italian jurists too, like Clarus, were at that
same time Spanish officials. The earliest Spanish secular jurist
appears to be Suarez de Paz. 6 According to him the most usual
tortures in Spain were the water and cord, the. pulley or strappado,
the hot brick, and the tablillas, or thumbscrew and boot combined.
Three was the greatest number of times that any torture could be
applied. It might be decreed either on demand of the accuser or
at will of the judge. The Roman rule of beginning with the weakest
was amplified into a series of regulations that a son was to be put
to the question before a father, a woman before a man, &c. The
fullest statement of Spanish law is to be found in the work of Antonio
Gomez, a professor at Salamanca. 7 With him no exceptions apply
in charges of laesa majestas divina or humana. A judge is liable
to different punishment according as he orders torture dolose or
culpabiliter. Differing from Hippolytus de Marsiliis, Gomez holds
that the dying accusation of a murdered man is not an indicium.
A confession on insufficient indicia is void. His division of torture
into tortura actualis and terror propinquus is the same as that of
the French jurists into torture and presentment. The conclusions
of the ecclesiastical writers of Spain, such as Eymerico and Simancas,
were accepted wholly or partially by the secular writers, such as
Alvarez de Velasco, 8 and the Peruvian, Juan de Hevia Bolafios, 9
who points out differences in the ecclesiastical and secular systems,
e.g. the former brought up the accused for ratification in three days,
the latter in twenty-four hours. A good deal of the Spanish law
will be found in the proceedings against Sir Thomas Picton (see
above). Torture in Spain seems to have been inflicted on Jews to
an extraordinary extent, as it was also in Portugal, where the latest
legislation as to torture seems to be of the year 1678. In 1790 it
had become obsolete, 10 and in a work on criminal procedure four
years later it is only referred to for the purpose of stating that when
it did exist it was realis or verbalist
Teutonic States. — Germany (including Austria) is distinguished
by the possession of the most extensive literature and legislation
1 vi. 4. 5-
2 Partida, vii. 30. It was one of the earliest books printed in
Spain, the earliest edition appearing in 1491.
3 Cited Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 76.
4 Du Cange, s.v. Fame necare.
6 In all the Latin countries the idea of torture had become a
commonplace. The dramatists contain frequent allusions to it.
In Lope de Vega's El Perro del hortelano (" The Dog in the Manger "),
one of the characters says, " Here's a pretty inquisition!" to which
the answer is, " The torture will be next applied." Moliere and
Racine both make use of it. In L'Avare, act iv. sc. 7, Harpagon
threatens to put his whole household to the question. In Les
Plaideurs Dandin invites Isabelle to see la question as a mode of
passing an hour or two. In England Bacon (Essay lvi.) says,
" There is no worse torture than the torture of laws." The same
idea occurs again in the Advancement of Learning, viii. 3, 13, " It
is a cruel thing to torture the laws that they may torture men."
• Praxis ecclesiastica et saecularis, vol. i. pt. v. §. 3 (Salamanca,
1583)-
1 Variae resolutiones, p. 412 (Antwerp, 1593).
8 Judex perfectus (Lausanne, 1740).
9 Curia filipica (Madrid, 1825).
10 Repertorio geral das leis extravagantes, p. 381 (Coimbra, 1815).
u Paschal Freirus, Inst. fur. crim. lusitani, p. 203 (Lisbon, 1794).
on the subject. The principal writers are Langer, von Rosbach
and von Boden. In addition may be cited the curious Layenspiegel
of Ulrich Tengler (1544), and the works of Remus, Casonus and
Carpzow. 12 Legislation was partly for the empirej partly for its
component states. Imperial legislation dealt with the matter in
the Golden Bull (1356), the Ordinance of Bamberg (1507), the
Carolina (1532) 13 and the Constitutio criminalis theresiana (1768). 14
The Carolina followed the usual lines, the main difference being
that the infliction must be in the presence of two scabini and a
notary, who wa_s to make a detailed record of the proceedings. The
code of Maria Theresa defines torture as " a subsidiary means of
eliciting truth." It could be applied only in cases where condemna-
tion would have involved capital or severe corporal punishment.
The illustrated edition was suppressed by Prince Kaunitz a few
days after its appearance. Torture was formally abolished in the
empire in 1776. In Prussia it was practically abolished by Frederick
the Great in 1740, formally in 1805. Even before its abolition it
was in use only to discover accomplices after conviction. 15 In
some other states it existed longer, in Baden as late as 1 83 1. It
was carried to excess in Germany, as in the Netherlands and Scotland
in charges of witchcraft.
The Netherlands. — The principal legislative enactment was the
code of criminal procedure promulgated by Philip II. in 1570 and
generally known as the Ordonnance sur le style. 11 ' One of its main
objects was to assimilate the varieties of local custom, as the Nueva
recopilacion had done in Spain three years earlier. The French
ordonnance of 1670 is probably largely based on it. In spite of
the attempt of the ordinance to introduce uniformity, certain cities
of Brabant, it is said, still claimed the privilege of torturing in
certain cases not permitted by the ordinance, e.g. where there was
only one witness. 17
The law of 1670 continued to be the basis of criminal procedure
in the Austrian Netherlands until 1787. In the United Provinces
it was not repealed until 1798. The principal text- writers are
Damhouder, 18 van Leeuwen 19 and Voet. Van Leeuwen lays down
as a fundamental principle that no one was to be condemned to
death without confession, and such confession, if attainable in no
other way, ought to be elicited by torture. Witnesses could be
tortured only if they varied on confrontation. One of the indicia
not always recognized by jurists was previous conviction for a similar
crime. Voet's commentary ad Pandectas w is interesting for its
taking the same view as St Augustine as to the uselessness of torture,
and compares its effect with that of the trial by battle. At the
same time he allows it to be of some value in the case of very grave
crimes. The value of torture was doubted by others as well as
Voet, e.g. by A. Nicholate 21 and by van Essen. 22 At the same time a
writer was found to compose a work on the unpromising subject
of the rack. 23
Scandinavian Countries. — There is a notice of torture in the Ice-
landic Code known as the Gragas (about 1 1 19). Judicial torture
is said to have been introduced into Denmark by Valdemar I. in
1157. 24 In the code of Christian V. (1683) it was limited to cases of
treason. 25 It was abolished by the influence of Struensee in 1771,
but notwithstanding this he was threatened with it, though it was
not actually inflicted, before his execution in 1772. In Sweden
torture never existed as a system, and in the code of 1734 it was
expressly forbidden. 26 It was however occasionally inflicted, as
in England, by extrajudicial authorities, called secret committees.
12 Extracts from these and other writers will be found in Lea,
Superstition and Force, and in R. Quanter, Die Folter in der
deutschen Rechtspflege sonst und fetzt (Berlin, 1900).
13 Chs. 33-44.
14 Art. 38 (Vienna, 1769).
15 This statement is made on the authority of a work attributed
to Frederick himself, Dissertation sur les raisons d'Stablir ou d'abroger
les lois (1748).
16 A list of the numerous commentaries on this code will be
found in Nybels, Les Ordonnances criminelles de Philippe II. de 1570,
p. 23 (Brussels, 1856).
17 Nybels, pp. 31, 33.
18 Pratique judiciaire en causes criminelles (Antwerp, 1564).
19 Censura forensis, pt. ii. bk. ii. chs. 8, 9 (Leiden, 1677).
20 On Dig. xlviii. 18. There are numerous editions of Voet, the
sixth (generally found in libraries) is the Hague (1734).
21 Si la torture est un moyen sur a verifier les crimes (Amsterdam,
1 681). Also by an anonymous writer thirty years earlier, De
Pijnbank wedersproken en bematigt (Rotterdam, 1651).
22 Jus ecclesiasticum universum (Louvain, 1720).
23 Hieronymi Magii Anglarenis de equuleo liber postumus (Amster-
dam, 1664). There are several works dealing with torture in
witchcraft proceedings. A large number of cases will be found in
J. Scheltema, Geschiedenis der Hexen-processen (Haarlem, 1828).
For torture in the 1 8th century see E. Hubert, La Torture aux Pays
Bas autrichiens pendant la xviii" siecle (Brussels, 1897).
24 Baden, Dansk juridisk Ordbog, s.v. " Tortur " (Copenhagen.
1828).
n Kolderup-Rosenvinge, Udvalg af gamle Danske-Domme, bk. i.
c. 20 (Copenhagen, 1848).
26 Cod. leg. svecicarum, pp. 233, 370 (Stockholm, 1 743).
TORUS— TOTEMISM
79
The " cave of roses," where reptiles were kept for the purpose of
torture, was closed by Gustavus III. in 1772.
Slav Countries. — The earliest mention of torture seems to be that
of the mutilation provided for certain offences by the code of Stephen
Dushan in 1349. In Russia torture does not occur in the recensions
of the earlier law. It was possibly of Tatar origin, and the earliest
mention of it in an official document is probably in the Sudebnik
of Ivan the Terrible (1497). In the ordinance of 1556 there are
elaborate regulations, which one learns from history were not always
observed in periods of political disturbance, and torture seems to
have been used even as a means of enforcing payment of debts.
The reaction begins with Peter the Great and culminates with
Catharine II., who was largely influenced by the opinions of Beccaria
and Voltaire. In the instructions to the commission for framing
a criminal code (1766), it is declared that all punishments by which
the body is maimed ought to be abolished, 1 and that the torture
of the rack violates the rules of equity and does not produce the end
proposed by the laws. 2 It was formally abolished by Alexander I.
in 1 801, and in 1832 the Svod Zakonov subjected to penalties any
judge who presumed to order it. But even as late as 1847 it seems
to have been inflicted in one or two exceptional cases. 3
Authorities. — For England Jardine's is still the standard work.
Much general information and numerous authorities will be found
in Lipenius, Bibliotheca realis Juridica, s.v. " Tortura " (Frankfort,
1679), and in the more modern work of J. Helbing, Die Tortur
(Berlin, 1902). For those who can obtain access to it the catalogue
issued at the sale of M. G. Libri (1861) is valuable. He had collected
most of the books on the subject. There are several publications
dealing with cases of individuals in addition to the numerous ones
on witchcraft trials, e.g. those of William Lithgow, the Amboyna
case, Dellon and Van Halen. Lithgow' s story has been republished
(Glasgow, 1907). (J. W.)
TORUS, a Latin word, meaning a round swelling or pro-
tuberance, applied to a convex moulding in architecture, which
in section is generally a semicircle. The earliest examples
are found in Egypt, where it was carried up the angles of the
pylon and temple walls and horizontally across the same. Its
most frequent employment is in the bases of columns; in the
Roman Doric order being the lowest moulding; in the Ionic
orders there are generally two torus mouldings separated by a
scotia with fillets. Both in Greek and Roman bases sometimes
the torus is elaborately carved. (See Moulding.)
TORZHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver,
on the river Tvertsa, 21 m. by rail S.W. of the Likhoslavl,
station of the St Petersburg & Moscow railway. Pop. (1900),
15,119. It dates from the nth century, and thename (market-
place) shows that this dependency of Novgorod was a commercial
centre. It was fortified with a stone wall, which only partially
protected it from the attacks of Mongols, Lithuanians and
Poles. Torzhok is celebrated in Russia for its embroidered
velvet and embroidered leather-work, for the manufacture of
travelling bags, and for its trade in corn and flour.
TOSCANELLA (anc. Tuscana, q.v.), a town of the province of
Rome, Italy, 15 m. N.E. of Corneto by road, 545 ft. above sea-
level. Pop. (1901), 4839. The medieval walls with their towers
are still preserved. On the ancient citadel hill is the Romanesque
church of S. Pietro, belonging to four different periods — 739,
1093 (the date of the reconstruction of the crypt), the middle of
the 1 2th and the end of the 12th century. It has the shape of a
Roman basilica, with a nave and two aisles and one apse. The
elaborate facade with its rose window also belongs to the 12th
century. S. Maria in the valley below dates from 1050 to 1206,
and has a similar facade and a massive square campanile. In
the town are two other Romanesque churches.
See G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell architettura Lombarda 1. 146
(Rome 1901).
TOSTIG (d. 1066), earl of Northumbria, was a son, probably
the third, of Earl Godwine, and in 1051 married Judith, sister
or daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders. In the year of
his marriage he shared the short exile of his father, returning
with him to England in 1052, and became earl of Northumbria
after the death of Earl Siward in 1055. He was very intimate
with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061 he
visited Pope Nicholas II. at Rome in the company of Aldred,
archbishop of York. By stern and cruel measures Tostig
1 Art. 96. 2 Ibid. 192-197.
3 See the various histories of Russian law, such as Maceiovski,
Lange and Zagoskin, under the heads of puitka or muchenie.
introduced a certain amount of order into the wild northern
district under his rule; this severity made him exceedingly
unpopular, and in 1065 Northumbria broke into open revolt.
Declaring Tostig an outlaw and choosing Morkere in his stead,
the rebels marched southwards and were met at Oxford by
Earl Harold, who, rather against the will of the king, granted
their demands. Tostig sailed to Flanders and thence to Nor-
mandy, where he offered his services to Duke William, who
was related to his wife and who was preparing for his invasion of
England. He then harried the Isle of Wight and the Kentish
and Lincolnshire coasts, and, after a stay in Scotland and possibly
a visit to Norway, joined another invader, Harald III. Hardrada,
king of Norway, in the Tyne. Together they sailed up the Hum-
ber and at Gate Fulford, near York, defeated Earls Morkere
and Edwine and entered York. But Harold, now king, was
hurrying to the north. Taking the Norwegians by surprise
at Stamford Bridge he destroyed their army on the 25th of
September 1066, and in this battle both Tostig and the king of
Norway were slain. Tostig's two sons appear to have taken refuge
in Norway, and his widow Judith married Welf, duke of Bavaria.
See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii.
(1870-1876).
TOTANA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia,
on the Lorca-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 13,703. The
town, which consists of two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and
Barrio de Triana, contains several handsome public buildings,
among them the church of Santiago, with its three naves. Water
is conveyed to Totana from the Sierra de Espufia by an aqueduct
7 m. long. Saltpetre is obtained among the hills, and there
is a thriving trade in wheat, oranges, olives, almonds, and wine
from the Sangonera valley. Other industries are»the manufac-
ture of linen, leather and the earthenware jars called tinajas,
which are used for the storage of oil and wine.
TOTEMISM. The word " totem " is used in too many varying
senses by students of early society and religion. The term
came into the English language in the form of " totam," through
a work of 1791, by J. Long, an interpreter between the whites
and the Red Indians of North America. 4 Long himself
seems to have used the word to denote the protective familiar,
usually an animal, which each Indian selected for himself,
generally through the monition of a dream during the long
fast of lads at their initiation. Such selected (or, when bestowed
by medicine-men or friends, " given ") totems are styled
" personal totems " and have no effect in savage law, nor are
they hereditary, with any legal consequences.
In stricter terminology " totem " denotes the object, gene-
rally of a natural species, animal or vegetable, but occasionally
rain, cloud, star, wind, which gives its name to a kindred
actual or supposed, among many savages and barbaric races in
America, Africa, Australia and Asia and the isles. Each
child, male or female, inherits this name, either from its
mother (" female descent ") or from its father (" male descent ").
Between each person and his or her name-giving object, a
certain mystic rapport is supposed to exist. Where descent
wavers, persons occasionally have, in varying degrees, the
totems of both parents.
Religious Aspect of the Totem. — As a rule, by no means in-
variable, the individual may not kill or eat the name-giving
object of his kin, except under dire necessity; while less usually
it is supposed to protect him and to send him monitory dreams.
This is the " religious " or semi-religious aspect of the totem,
or this aspect is, by some students, called " religious."
We also hear of customs of burying and lamenting dead ani-
mals which are regarded with reverence by this or that " family,"
or " clan." This custom is reported among the Samoans, and
one " clan " was said to offer first-fruits to its sacred animal,
the eel; while the " clan " that revered the pigeon kept and fed
a tame specimen. 5 But in Samoa, though the sacred animals
of "clans " or " families " are, in all probability, survivals of
totemism, they are now regarded by the people as the vehicles
4 Long, Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter (1791), p. 86.
5 Turner, Samoa, p. 71.
8o
TOTEMISM
of " clan " or " family " gods, and therefore receive honours
not paid to the hereditary totems of Australia and North
America, which have nothing godlike. It is to be presumed that
" totem dances " in which some Australian tribes exhibit, in
ballets d'action, the incidents of a myth concerning the totem,
are, in a certain sense, " religious "; when they are not magical,
and intended to foster and fertilize the species, animal or
vegetable or other to which the totem belongs.
The magical performances for the behoof of the totem crea-
tures may be studied in the chapters on " Intichiuma " in Messrs
Spencer and Gillen's Native Tribes of Central Australia, and
Native Tribes of Northern Australia. Among the many guesses
at the original purpose of totemism, one has been that the
primal intention of totem sets of human beings was to act as
magical co-operative stores for supplying increased quantities
of food to the tribe. But this opinion has gone the way of
other conjectures. The " religious " status of the totem is
lowest among peoples where its influence on social regulations
is greatest, and vice versa, a topic to which we recur.
There are also various rites, in various tribes, connecting the
dead man with his totem at his funeral; perhaps at his initia-
tion, when a boy, into the esoteric knowledge and rules of his
tribe. Men may identify themselves with their totems, or,
mark themselves as of this or that totem by wearing the hide
or the plumage of the bird or beast, or by putting on a mask
resembling its face. The degree of " religious " regard for the
revered object increases in proportion as it is taken to contain
the spirit of an ancestor or to be the embodiment of a god:
ideas not found among the most backward savages.
The supreme or superior being of low savage religion or
mythology is .never a totem. He may be able, like Zeus in
Greek mythology, to assume any shape he pleases; and in the
myths of some Australian tribes he ordained the institution of
totemism. Byamee, among the Euahlayi tribe of north-west New
South Wales, had all the totems in him, and when he went to
his paradise, Bullimah, he distributed them, with the mar-
riage rules, among his people. 1 In other legends, especially
those of central and northern Australia, the original totem
creatures, animal in form, with bestial aspect, were developed in a
marine or lacustrine environment, and from them were evolved
the human beings of each totem kin. The rule of non-inter-
marriage within the totem was, in some myths, of divine institu-
tion; in others, was invented by the primitive wandering totemic
beings; or was laid down by the wisdom of mere men who saw
some unknown evil in consanguine unions. The strict regard
paid to the rule may be called " religious "; in so far as totemists
are aware of no secular and social raison d' etre of the rule it
has a mysterious character. But whereas to eat the totem is
sometimes thought to be automatically punished by sickness or
death, this danger does not attach to marriage within the totem
save in a single known case. The secular penalty alone is
dreaded; so there seems to be no religious fear of offending a
superior being, or the totem himself: no tabu of a mystic sort.
Social Aspect of the Totem. — The totem has almost always a
strong influence on or is associated with marriage law, and
except in the centre of Australia, and perhaps in the little-known
West, men and women of the same totem may not intermarry,
" however far apart their hunting grounds," and though there is
no objection on the score of consanguinity.
This is the result, in Australia, of the custom, there almost
universal, which causes each individual to belong, by birth, to
one or other of the two main exogamous and intermarrying
divisions of the tribe (usually called " phratries "). The phra-
tries (often known by names of animals, as Eagle Hawk and
Crow, Crow and White Cockatoo) contain each a number of
totem kins, as Dog, Wild Cherry, Wombat, Frog, Owl, Emu,
Kangaroo, and so on, and (except among the Arunta " nation "
of five tribes in Central Australia) the same totem kin never
occurs in both phratries. Thus as all persons except in the
Arunta nation, marry out of their own phratry, none can marry
into his or her totem kin.
1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe.
In some parts of North America the same rule prevails, with
this peculiarity that the phratries, or main exogamous divisions,
are not always two, as in Australia, but, for example, among
the Mohegans three— Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey. 2 In Wolf
all the totems are quadrupeds; under Turtle they are various
species of turtles and the yellow eel; and under Turkey all
the totems are birds.
Cleajly this ranking of the totems in the phratries is the result
of purposeful design, not of accident. Design may also be
observed in such phratries of Australian tribes as are named after
animals of contrasted colours, such as White Cockatoo and
Crow, Light Eagle Hawk and Crow. It has been supposed by
Mr J. Mathew, Pere Schmidt and others that these Australian
phratries arose in an alliance with connubium between a darker
and a lighter race. 3 But another hypothesis is not less prob-
able; and as we can translate only about a third of Australian
phratry names, conjecture on this subject is premature.
Both in Australia and America the animals, as Eagle Hawk and
Crow, which give their names to the phratries, are almost always
totem kins within their own phratries. 4
The Moquis of Arizona are said to have ten phratries, by
Captain Ulick Bourke in his Snake Dance of the Moquis, but
possibly he did not use the term " phratry " in the sense which
we attach to it.
Among the Urabunna of Southern Central Australia, and
among the tribes towards the Darling River, a very peculiar rule
is said to prevail. There are two phratries, and in each are many
totem kins, but each totem kin may intermarry with only one
totem kin which must be in the opposite phratry. 5 Thus there
are as many exogamous divisions as there are totems in the
tribes, which reckon descent in the female line; children in-
heriting the mother's totem only. Corroboration of these
statements is desirable, as the tribes implicated are peculiarly
" primitive," and theirs may be the oldest, extant set of
marriage rules.
The existence of two or more main exogamous divisions,
named or unnamed, is found among peoples where there are
either no totem kins, or where they have fallen into the back-
ground, as in parts of Melanesia, among the Todas and Meitchis
of India and the Wanika in East Africa. 6
An extraordinary case is reported from South Australia where
people must marry in their own phratry, while their children
belong to the opposite phratry. 7 This awaits corroboration.
We now see some of the numerous varieties which prevail
in the marriage rules connected with the totems. Even among
a tribe whose members, it is reported, may marry into their
own phratries, it appears that they must not marry within their
own totem kins. This is, indeed, the rule wherever totemic
societies are found in anything approaching to what we deem
their most archaic constitution as in south-east Australia and
some tribes of North America.
Exogamy: The Arunta Abnormality. — Meanwhile, in Central
Australia, in the Arunta " nation," the rule forbidding marriage
within the totem kin does not exist. Totems here are not, as
everywhere else, inherited from either parent, but a child is of
what we may call " the local totem " of the place where its
mother first became conscious of its life within her. The idea
is that the spirits of a primal race, in groups each of one totem
only (" Alcheringa folk"), haunt various localities; or spirits
{ratapa) emanating from these primal beings do so; they enter
into passing married Women, and are incarnated and born again. 8
2 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 174.
3 Mathew, Eagle Hawk and Crow; Schmidt, Anthropos (1909).
4 See Lang, The Secret of the Totem, pp. 154, 170; and N. W.
Thomas, Kinship and Marriage in Australia, pp. 9, 31.
5 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 93, 181, 188';
Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 60, 61,
Northern Tribes, p. 71; Lang, Anthropological Essays; Tylor's Festr
schrift, pp. 203-210.
6 Thomas, ut supra, p. 10. See, for numerous examples, T. G-
Frazer, Totemism (1910).
7 M S. of Mrs Bates.
8 It is necessary to state here the sources of our information
about the central, north, north-western and south-eastern forms of
TOTEMISM
81
Thus if a woman, whatever her own totem, and whatever her
husband's may be, becomes conscious of her child's life in a
known centre of Wild Cat spirits, her child's totem is Wild Cat,
and so with all the rest.
As a consequence, a totem sometimes here appears in what
the people call the " wrong " (i.e. not the original) exogamous
division; and persons may marry within their own totem name,
if that totem be in the " right " exogamous division, which is not
theirs. Each totem spirit is among the Arunta associated with
an amulet or churinga of stone; these are of various shapes, and
are decorated with concentric circles, spirals, cupules, and other
archaic patterns. These amulets are only used in this sense by
the Arunta nation and their neighbours the Kaitish, " and it is
this idea of spirit individuals associated with churinga and
resident in certain definite spots that lies at the root of the present
totemism. About the central Arunta tribe with its neighbours, the
Urabunna, we have the evidence very carefully collected by Mr
Gillen, a protector of the aborigines, and Professor Baldwin Spencer
(Native Tribes of Central Australia). Concerning the peoples north
from the centre to the Gulf of Carpentaria, the same scholars furnish
a copious account in their Northern Tribes. These two explorers had
the confidence of the blacks; witnessed their most secret ceremonies,
magical and initiatory; and collected their legends. Their books,
however, contain no philological information as to the structure
and interrelation of the dialects, information which is rarely to be
found in the works of English observers in Australia. As far as
appears, the observers conversed with the tribes only in " pidgin
English." If this be the case that lingua franca is current among
some eighteen central-northern tribes speaking various native
dialects. We are told nothing about the languages used in each
case; perhaps the Arunta men who accompanied the expedition
arranged a system of interpreters.
For the Dieri tribe, neighbours of the Urabunna, we have copious
evidence in Native Tribes of South-East Australia by the late Mr
A. W. Howitt, who studied the peoples for forty years; was made
free of their initiatory ceremonies; and obtained intelligence from
settlers in regions which he did not visit. We have also legends
with Dieri texts and translations from the Rev. Mr Siebert, a mis-
sionary among the Dieri. That tribe appears now to exist in a very
dwindled condition under missionary supervision. The accounts
of tribes from the centre to the south-east by Mr R. E. Mathew,
are scattered in many English, Australian and American learned
periodicals. Mr Mathew has given a good deal of information
about some of the dialects. His statements as to the line of descent
and on other points among certain tribes are at variance with those
of Messrs Spencer and Gillen (see an article by Mr A. R. Brown in
Man, March 1910). Mr Mathew, however, does not enable us to
test the accuracy of his informants among the northern tribes, which
is unfortunate. For the Aranda (or Arunta) of a region apparently
not explored by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and for the neighbouring
Loritja tribe, we have Die Aranda und Loritja Stdmme, two volumes
by the Rev. C. Strehlow (Baer, Frankfurt am Main, 1907, 1908).
Mr Strehlow is a German missionary who, after working among
the Dieri and acquiring their language, served for many years among
a branch of the Arunta (the Aranda), differing considerably in
dialect, myths and usages from the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and
Gillen. In some points, for example as to the primal ancestors
and the spirits diffused by them for incarnation in human bodies,
the Aranda and Loritja are more akin to the northern tribes than
to Mr Spencer's Arunta. In other myths they resemble some
south-eastern tribes reported on by Mr Howitt. Unlike the Arunta
of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, but like the Arunta described by
Mr Gillen earlier in The Horn Expedition, they believe in " a
magnified non-natural man," Altjira, with a goose-foot, dwelling
in the heavens. Unlike the self-created Atnatu of the Kaitish of
Messrs Spencer and Gillen, he is not said to have created things,
or to take any concern about human beings, as Atnatu does in
matters of ceremonial. Mr Strehlow gives Aranda and Lortija
texts in the original, with translations and philological remarks.
Mr Frazer, in his Totemism, makes no use of Mr Strehlow's
information (save in a single instance). To us it seems worthy of
study. His reason for this abstention is that, in a letter to him
(Melbourne, March 10, 1908), Mr Spencer says that for at least twenty
years the Lutheran Missions have taught the natives " that altjira
means ' god ' ; have taught that their sacred ceremonies and secular
dances are ' wicked '; have prohibited them, and have never seen
them. Flour and tobacco, &c, are only given to natives who attend
church and school. Natives have been married who, according
to native customary law, belong to groups to which marriage is
forbidden. For these reasons Mr Frazer cannot attempt " to
filter the native liquor clear of its alien sediment," (Totemism,
i. 186, note 2).
Against this we may urge that, as regards the goose-footed sky-
dweller, Mr Strehlow reports less of his active interest in human
affairs than Mr Gillen does concerning his " Great Ulthaana of the
totemic system of the Arunta," says Messrs Spencer and Gillen. 1
Every Arunta born incarnates a pre-existent primal spirit
attached to one of the stone churinga dropped by primal totemic
beings, all of one totem in each case, at a place called an
oknanikilla. Each child belongs to the totem of the primal
beings of the place, where the mother became aware of the
child's life.
Thus the peculiar causes which have produced the unique
Arunta licence of marrying within the totem are conspicuously
obvious.
Contradictory Theories about the Arunta Abnormal Totemism. —
At this point theories concerning the origin of totemism begin
to differ irreconcilably. Mr Frazer, Mr Spencer, and, apparently
Dr Rivers, hold that, in Australia at least, totemism was
originally " conceptional." It began in the belief by the women
that pregnancy was caused by the entrance into them of some
spirit associated with a visible object, usually animal or vegetable;
while the child born, in each case, was that object. Hence that
class of objects was tabued to the child; was its totem, but such
totems were not hereditary.
Next, for some unknown reason, the tribes were divided into
two bodies or segments. The members of segment A may not
intermarry; they must marry persons of segment B, and vice
versa. Thus were evolved the primal forms of totemism and
exogamy now represented in the law of the Arunta nation alone.
Here, and here alone, marriage within the totem is permitted.
The theory is, apparently, that , in all other exogamous and totemic
peoples, totems had been, for various reasons, made hereditary,
before exogamy was enforced by the legislator in his wisdom.
Thus, all over the totemic world, except in the Arunta nation,
the method of the legislator was simply to place one set of
totem kins in tribal segment A, and the other in segment B, and
make the segments exogamous and intermarrying. Thus it
was impossible for any person to marry another of 'the same
totem. This is the theory of Mr Frazer.
Upholders of the contradictory system maintain that the
Arunta nation has passed through and out of the universal and
normal system of hereditary and exogamous totemism into its
present condition, by reason of the belief that children are
incarnations of pre-existing animal or vegetable spirits, plus the
unique Arunta idea of the connexion of such spirits with their
stone churinga. Where this combination of the two beliefs does
not occur, there the Arunta non-hereditary and non-exogamous
totemism does not occur. It would necessarily arise in any
normal tribe which adopted the two Arunta beliefs, which are not
" primitive."
Arguments against Mr Frazer' s Theory. — There was obviously
a time, it is urged, when all totems were, as everywhere else,
heavens " among the Arunta. Mr Strehlow's being, Altjira, has
a name apparently meaning " mystic " or sacred, which is applied
to other things, for example to the inherited maternal totem of
each native. His names for Altjira (god) and for the totemic
ancestors (totem gods), are inappropriate, but may be discounted.
Many other tribes who are discussed by Mr Frazer have been long
under missionary influence as well as the Aranda. According to
Mr Frazer the Dieri tribe had enjoyed a German Lutheran mission
station (since 1866) for forty-four years up to 1910. About 150
Dieri were alive in 1909 (Totemism, iii. 344). Nevertheless the
Dieri myths published by Mr Siebert in the decadence of the
tribe, and when the remnant was under missionaries, show no
" alien sediment." Nor do the traditions of Mr Strehlow's Aranda.
Their traditions are closely akin, now to those of the Arunta, now
to those of the northern tribes, now to those of the Euahlayi of Mrs
Langloh Parker (The Euahlayi Tribe) in New South Wales, and once
more to those of Mr Howitt's south-eastern tribes. There is no trace
of Christian influence in the Aranda and Loritja matter, no vestige
of " alien " (that is, of European) " sediment," but the account of
Atnatu among the Kaitish reported on by Messrs Spencer and Gillen
reads like a savage version of Milton's " Fall of the Angels " in Paradise
Lost. For these reasons we do not reject the information of Mr
Strehlow, who is master of several tribal languages, and, of course,
does not encourage wicked native rites by providing supplies of
flour, tobacco, &c, during the performances, as Mr Howitt and
others say that they found it necessary to do. Sceptical colonists
have been heard to aver that natives will go on performing rites as
long as white men will provide supplies.
1 Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123.
8a
TOTEMISM
in what the Arunta call "the right" divisions; Arunta, that is,
were so arrayed that no totem existed in more than one division.
Obliged, as now, to marry out of their own exogamous division
(one of four sub-classes among the Arunta) into one of the four
sub-classes of the opposite side, no man could then find in it a
woman of his own totem to marry. But when Arunta ceased to
be hereditary, and came to be acquired, as now, by the local
accident of the totem spirits — all, in each case, of one totem
name, which haunt the supposed place of a child's conception —
some totems inevitably would often get out of their original
sub-class into another, and thus the same totems are in
several divisions. But granting that a man of division
A may legally marry a woman of division B, he is not
now prevented from doing so because his totem (say Wild
Cat) is also hers. His or hers has strayed, by accident
of supposed place of conception, out of its " right "
into its " wrong " division. The words " right " and " wrong "
as here used by the Arunta make it certain that they still
perceive the distinction, and that, before the Arunta evolved
the spiritual view of conception, they had, like other people,
their totems in each case confined to a single main exogamous
division of their tribe, and therefore no persons could then
marry into their own totems.
But when the theory of spiritual conception arose, and was
combined, in the Arunta set of tribes alone (it is common enough
elsewhere in northern and western Australia), with the churinga
doctrine, which gave totems by accident, these two factors, as
Messrs Spencer and Gillen say, became the causes — " he at the
root " — of the present Arunta system by which persons may marry
others of "the right" division, but of "the wrong" totem.
That system is strictly confined to the group of tribes (Ilpirra,
Loritja, Unmaterja, Kaitish, Arunta) which constitute " the
Arunta nation." Elsewhere the belief in spiritual conception
widely prevails, but not the belief in the connexion of spirits of
individuals with the stone churinga of individuals. Consequently
the Arunta system of marriage within the totem exists nowhere,
and the non-exogamous non-hereditary totem exists nowhere,
except in the Arunta region. Everywhere else hereditary totems
are exogamous. 1
Thus the practice of acquiring the totem by local accident
is absolutely confined to five tribes where the churinga doctrine
coexists with it. That the churinga belief, coexistent with the
spiritual theory of conception, is of relatively recent origin is a
demonstrable fact. Had it always been present among the
Arunta the inevitable result, in the course of ages, would be the
scattering of the totems almost equally, as chance would scatter
them among the eight exogamous divisions.
This can be tested by experiment. Take eight men, to
represent the eight exogamous divisions, and set them apart in
two groups of four. Take four packs of cards, 208 cards, to
represent the Arunta totems, which are over 200 in number.
Deal the cards round in the usual way to each of the eight men ;
each will receive 26 cards. It will not be found that group A has
" the great majority " of spades and clubs, while group B has
" the great majority " of diamonds and hearts, and neither group
will have " the great majority " of court cards. Accident does
not work in that way. But while accident alone now determines
the totem to which an Arunta shall belong, nevertheless " in the
Arunta, as a general rule, the great majority of the members of
any one totemic group belong to one moiety of the tribe; but this
is by no means universal . . . " — that is, of the totems the great
majority in each case, as a rule, belongs to one or the other set of
four exogamous sub-classes. 2
The inference is obvious. While chance has now placed only
the small minority of each totem in all or several of the eight
exogamous divisions, the great majority of totems is in one or
another of the divisions. This great majority cannot come by
chance, as Arunta totems now come; consequently it is but lately
that chance has determined the totem of each individual. Had
chance from the first been the determining cause, each totem
1 N.T.C.A. p. 257; cf. Frazer, Totemism, i. 200-201.
2 Northern Tribes, pp. 151 sqq.
would not be fairly equally present in each of the two sets of four
exogamous divisions. But determination by accident has only
existed long enough to affect " as a general rule " a small minority
of cases. " The great majority " of totems remain in what is
recognized as " the right," the original divisions, as elsewhere
universally. Arunta myth sometimes supports, sometimes
contradicts, the belief that the totems were originally limited,
in each case, to one or other division only, and, being self-
contradictory, has no historic value.
A further proof of our point is that the northern neighbours
of the Arunta, the Kaitish, have only partially accepted Arunta
ideas, religious and social. Unlike the Arunta they have a
creative being, Atnatu, from whom half of the population
descend; the other half were evolved out of totemic forms. 3 In
the same way the Kaitish totems " are more strictly divided
between the two moieties " (main exogamous divisions) " of the
tribe." 4 Consequently a man may marry a woman of his own
totem if she be in the right exogamous division. " She is not
actually forbidden to him, as a wife becomes of this identity and
totem, as she would be in the Warramunga neighbouring
tribe . . ." " It is a very rare thing for a man to marry a
woman of the same totem as himself," 5 naturally, for the old
rule holds, in sentiment, and a totem is still very rarely in the
wrong division. The Arunta system of accidental determination
of the totem has as yet scarcely produced among the Kaitish
any of its natural and important effects.
This view of the case seems logical: Arunta non-exogamous
non-hereditary totemism is the result, as Messrs Spencer and
Gillen show, of the theory of spiritual conception and the theory
of the relation of the spirit part of each individual to his churinga.
These two beliefs have already caused a minority of Arunta
totems to get out of the original and into the wrong exogamous
Arunta divisions. The process is not of old standing; if it were,
all totems would now be fairly distributed among the divisions
by the laws of chance. In the Kaitish tribe, on the other hand,
the processes must be of very recent operation, for they have only
begun to produce their necessary effects. The totemism of the
Arunta is thus the reverse of " primitive," and has but slightly
affected the Kaitish.
Precisely the opposite view of the facts is taken by Mr Frazer
in his erudite and exhaustive work Totemism. In the Kaitish,
he writes, " we may detect the first stage in the transition from
promiscuous marriage and fortuitous descent of the totem to
strict exogamy of the totem clans and strict heredity of the
totems in the paternal line." 6 By "promiscuous marriage,"
marriage within or without the totem, at pleasure, is obviously
intended, for the Arunta do not marry " promiscuously " — do
not marry their nearest kin.
How, on Mr Frazer's theory, was the transition from the
condition of the Arunta to that of the Kaitish made? If the
Kaitish were once in the actual Arunta stage of totemism, how
did their totems come now to be much more strictly divided
between the two moieties, though " the division is not so
absolute as amongst the Urabunna in the south and the tribes
farther north . . ."? How did this occur? The Kaitish have
not made totems hereditary by law; they are acquired by local
accident. They have not made a rule that all totems should,
as among the more northern neighbours of the Arunta, be
regimented so that no totem occurs in more than one division:
to this rule there are exceptions. A man " is not actually
forbidden " to marry a woman of his own totem provided she
be of " the right division," but it is clear that he " does not
usually do so." This we can explain as the result of a survival
in manners of the old absolute universal prohibition.
Meanwhile our view of the facts makes all the phenomena
seem natural and intelligible in accordance with the statement
of the observers, Messrs Spencer and Gillen, that the cause of
the unique non-hereditary non-exogamous totems of the Arunta
is the combination of the churinga spiritual belief with the belief
in spiritual conception. This cause, though now present among
3 Northern Tribes, pp. 153, 154, 175. 4 Ibid. p. 152.
6 Ibid. p. 175. 6 Totemism, i. 244.
TOTEMISM
83
the Kaitish, has, so far, operated but faintly. We have been
explicit on these points because on them the whole problem of
the original form of totemism hinges. In our view, for the reasons
stated, the Arunta system of non-exogamous non-hereditary
totemism is a peculiarity of comparatively recent institution.
But Mr Frazer, and the chief observer of the phenomena, Mr
Spencer, consider the Arunta system, non-exogamous and non-
hereditary, to be the most archaic form of totemism extant.
As to non-hereditary, we find another report of the facts in
Die Aranda und Loritja Stamme, by the Rev. Mr Strehlow, who
has a colloquial and philological knowledge of the language of
these tribes. As he reports, among other things, that the
Aranda (Arunta) in his district inherit their mother's totems, in
addition to their " local totems," they appear to retain an
archaic feature from which their local totem system and marriage
rules are a departure. 1
The hereditary maternal totem is, in Mr Strehlow's region, the
protective being (altjira) of each Arunta individual.
Are the Arunta " Primitive " or not? — In the whole totemic
controversy the question as to whether the non-exogamous
non-hereditary totemism of the Arunta or the hereditary and
exogamous totemism of the rest of Australia and of totemic
mankind, be the earlier, is crucial.
That Arunta totemism is a freak or " sport," it is argued,
is made probable first by the fact that the Arunta inherit all
things hereditable in the male line, whereas inheritance in the
female descent is earlier. (To this question we return; see below,
Male and Female Lines of Descent.) M. Van Gennep argues
that tribes in contact, one set having female, the other male,
descent, " like the Arunta have combined the systems." 2 But
several northern tribes with male descent of the totem which are
not in contact with tribes of female descent show much stronger
traces of the " combination " than the Arunta, who intermarry
freely with a tribe of female descent, the Urabunna; while the
Urabunna, though intermarrying with the Arunta who inherit
property and tribal office in the male line, show no traces of
" combination." Thus the effects occur where the alleged
causes are not present; and the alleged causes, in the case of
the Urabunna and Arunta, do not produce the effects.
Next the Arunta have no names for their main exogamous
divisions, these names being a very archaic feature which in many
tribes with sub-classes tend to disappear. In absence of phratry
names the Arunta are remote from the primitive. M. Van
Gennep replies that perhaps the Arunta have not yet made the
names, or have not yet borrowed them. This is also the view
of Mr Frazer. As he says, the Southern Arunta lived under the
rule of eight classes, but of these four were anonymous, till the
names for them were borrowed from the north. The people
can thus have anonymous exogamous divisions; the two main
divisions, or phratries, of the Arunta may, therefore, from the
first, have been anonymous.
To this the reply is that people borrow, if they can, what they
need. The Arunta found names for their four hitherto anony-
mous classes to be convenient, so they borrowed them. But
when once class-names did, as they do, all that is necessary, the
Arunta had no longer any use for the names of the two primary
main divisions: these were forgotten; there is nothing to be got
by borrowing that; while four Arunta " sub-classes " are gaining
their names, the " classes " (phratries or main divisions) have
lost them. It is perfectly logical to hold that while things
useful, but hitherto anonymous, are gaining names, other things,
now totally useless, are losing their names. One process is as
natural as the other. In all Australia tribes with two main
divisions and no sub-classes, the names of the two main divisions
are found, because the names are useful. In several tribes with
named sub-classes, which now do the work previously thrown on
the main divisions, the names of the main divisions are unknown:
the main divisions being now useless, and superseded by the sub-
classes. The absence of names of the two main divisions in the
Arunta is merely a result, often found, of the rise of the sub-
1 Strehlow, ii. 57 (1908).
s Mythes et legendes d'Australie, p. xxxii.
classes, which, as Mr Frazer declares, are not primitive, but the
result of successive later legislative acts of division. 3
Manifestly on this point the Arunta are at the farthest point
from the earliest organization: their loss of phratry names is
the consequence of this great advance from the " primitive."
All Arunta society rests on a theory of reincarnated spirits,
a theory minutely elaborated. M Van Gennep asks " why
should this belief not be primitive? " Surely neither the
belief in spirits, nor the elaborate working out of the belief
connecting spirits with manufactured stone amulets, can have
been primitive. Nobody will say that peculiar stone amulets
and the Arunta belief about spirits associated with them are
primitive. To this M Van Gennep makes no reply. 4
The Arunta belief that children are spirit-children (ratapa)
incarnated is very common in the other central and northern
tribes, and, according to Mrs Bates, in Western Australia; Dr
Roth reports the same for parts of Queensland. It is alleged by
Messrs Spencer and Gillen that the tribes holding this belief
deny any connexion between sexual unions and procreation.
Mr Strehlow, on the other hand, says that in his region the
older Arunta men understand the part of the male in procreation;
and that even the children of the Loritja and Arunta understand,
in the case of animals. 5 (Here corroboration is desirable and
European influence may be asserted.) Dr Roth says that the
Tully River blacks of Queensland admit procreation for all
other animals, which have no Koi or soul, but not for men, who
have souls. (Their theory of human birth, therefore, merely
aims primarily at accounting for the spiritual part of man.) 6
According to Mrs Bal^s, some tribes in the north of South
Australia, tribes with the same " class " names as the Arunta,
hold that to have children a man must possess two spirits
(ranee). If he has but one, he remains childless. If he has two,
he can dream of an animal, or other object, which then passes
into his wife, and is born as a child, the animal thus becoming the
child's totem. This belief does not appear to apply to reproduc-
tion in the lower animals. It is a spiritual theory of the begetting
of a soul incarnated. If a man has but one spirit, he cannot give
one to a child, therefore he is childless.
It is clear that this, and all other systems in which reproduction
is explained in spiritual terms, can only arise among peoples
whose whole mode of thinking is intensely " animistic." It is
also plain that all such myths answer two questions — (1) How
does a being of flesh and spirit acquire its spiritual part? — (2)
How is it that every human being is in mystical ropport
with an animal, plant, or other object, the totem? Manifestly
the second question could not arise and need answer before
mankind were actually totemists. It may be added that in
the south of Western Australia the name for the mythical
" Father of All " (a being not there worshipped, though
images of him are made and receive some cult at certain
licentious festivals) and the name for " father-stock " is
maman, which Mrs Bates finds to be the native term for
membrum virile. All this appears to be proof of understand-
ing of the male part in reproduction,, though that understanding
is now obscured by speculation about spirits.
The question arises then, is the ignorance of procreation, where
that ignorance exists, " primitive," and is the Arunta totemism
also " primitive," being conditioned, as we are told it is, by the
unique belief in some churingal Or is the ignorance due to
attempts of native thinkers to account for the spirit in man as a
pre-existing entity that has been from the beginning? The
former view is that of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and Mr Frazer.
For the latter see Lang, Anthropological Essays presented to
E. B. Tylor, pp. 210-218. We can hardly call people primitive
because they have struggled with the problem " how has material
man an indwelling spirit? "
Theories of the Origin of Totemic Exogamy. — Since the word
" exogamy " as a name for the marriage systems connected (as
a rule) with totemism was used by J. F. McLennan in his
3 Totemism, i. 282, 283. 4 Van Gennep, pp. xxxiii-xxxv.
6 Loritja Stamme, p. 52, note 7.
6 Roth, Bulletin, No. 5, pp. 17, 22, 65, 81.
8 4
TOTEMISM
Primitive Marriage (1866), theories of the origin of exogamy
have been rife and multifarious. All, without exception, are
purely conjectural. One set of disputants hold that man
(whatever his original condition may have been) was, when he
first passed an Act of Exogamy, a member of a tribe. Howitt's
term for this tribe was " the undivided commune." It had,
according to him, its inspired medicine-man, believed to be in
communication with some superior being. It had its pro-
bouleutic council of elders or " headmen " and its general
assembly. Such was man's political condition. 1 It is not dis-
tinguishable from that of many modern Australian tribes. Other
tribes, said by some to be the most primitive, the Arunta and
their neighbours, pay no attention to the dictates of a superior
being, and the Arunta of Spencer and Gillen seem to know no
such entity, though as Atnatu, Tukura, Altjira, and " the Great
Ulthaana of the heavens," he exists in a dwindled form among
the Kaitish, Loritja and outlying portions of the Arunta tribe.
In religion Howitt's early men were already in advance of Mr
Spencer's Arunta. Socially, man, at this date, according to
Howitt, at first left the relations of the sexes wholly unregulated;
the nearest kinsfolk by blood coupled at will, though perfectly
aware that they were, at least on the maternal side, actual
brothers and sisters, parents and children.
Upholders of the first theory, that man lived promiscuously
in a tribal state with legislative assemblies and then suddenly
reformed promiscuity away, must necessarily differ in their
opinion as to the origins of totems and exogamy from the friends
of the second theory, who believe that man never was "pro-
miscuous," and given to sexual union with near kin. Why man,
on the first theory — familiar as he was with unions of the nearest
kin — suddenly abolished them is explained in four or five different
ways. Perhaps the most notable view is Mr Frazer's; he easily
confutes, in thirty-five pages, the other hypotheses. 2 Man saw,
or thought he saw, injurious consequences to the wedded near-
related couples, and therefore he prohibited, first, unions between
mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters. 3 But, in his fourth
volume, Mr Frazer sees conclusive objections to this view 4 and
prefers another. Some peoples, far above the estate of savagery,
believe that human incest blights and sterilizes the crops,
women and animals. " If any such belief were entertained by
the founders of exogamy, they would clearly have been perfectly
sufficient motives for instituting the system, for they would
perfectly explain the horror with which incest has been regarded
and the extreme severity with which it has been punished." 5
That is to say, people had a horror and hatred of incest because
they supposed that it blighted the crops and other things. Mr
Frazer had previously written (iv. 108) " It is important to bear
steadily in mind that the dislike of certain marriages must always
have existed in the minds of the people, or at least of their leaders,
before that dislike, so to say, received legal sanction by being
embodied in an exogamous rule."
Again (iv. 112) " There had, for some reason unknown to us,
been long growing up a strong aversion to consanguineous
unions " — before any legislative bar was raised against them.
This is insisted on. The prohibition " must have answered to
certain general sentiments of what was right and proper "
(iv. 121). But here the theorist has to explain the origin of
the strong aversion, the general sentiment that unions of near
kin are wrong and improper. But Mr Frazer does not seem to
explain the point that most needs explanation. That " strong
aversion," that " general sentiment," cannot have arisen from
a growing belief that unions of close kin spoiled the crops or
the natural resources of the country. That superstition could
only arise as a consequence of the horror and aversion with
which " incest " was regarded. Now no idea corresponding
to " incest " could arise before unions of near kin were deemed
abominable. When once such unions were thought hateful to
gods and men, and an upsetting of the cosmic balance, then,
but not till then, they might be regarded as injurious to the
crops. All such beliefs are sanctions of ideas already in strong
1 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 89, 90. 3 Ibid. i. 165.
» Totemism, iv. 75-120. * Ibid. iv. 155, 156.
6 Ibid. iv. 158.
force. The idea that such or such a thing is wrong begets
the prohibition, followed by the sanction — the belief that
the practice of the thing is injurious in a supernormal way:
where that belief exists. We do not know it in Australia, for
example.
A belief that close sexual unions were maleficent cosmic
influences could not possibly arise previous to, and could not
then cause, "the dislike of certain marriages"; "the strong
aversion to consanguineous unions " — which existed already.
This latest guess of Mr Frazer at the origin of the idea of
" incest " — of the abomination of certain unions — is untenable.
What he has to explain is the origin of the dislike, the aversion,
the horror. Once that has arisen, as he himself observes, the
prohibition follows, and then comes the supernormal sanction.
Thus no theory of exogamous rules as the result of legislation
to prevent the unions of persons closely akin, can produce, or
has produced, any reason for the aversion to such unions arising
among people to whom, on the theory, they were familiar.
Mr Frazer has confuted the guesses of MacLennan, Morgan,
Durkheim and others; but his own idea is untenable.
The Supposed Method of Reform. — On Mr Frazer's theory
the reformers first placed half of the mothers of the tribe,
with their children, in division A; and the rest of the mothers,
with their children, in division B. The members of each division
(phratry) must marry out of it into the other, and thus no man
could marry his sister or mother. (The father could marry his
daughter, but in tribes with no exogamous explicit rule against
the union, he never does.) Later the two divisions were bisected
each into a couple of pairs (classes) preventing marriage
between father and daughter; and another resegmentation
prohibited the unions of more distant relations. These systems,
from the simplest division into two phratries, to the more
complex with two " sub-classes " in each phratry, and the
most elaborate of all with four sub-classes in each phratry,
exist in various tribes. Environment and climate have
nothing to do with the matter. The Urabunna and the
Arunta live in the same climate and environment, and inter-
marry. The Urabunna have the most primitive, the Arunta
have the most advanced of these organizations. While the
rules are intended to prevent consanguineous marriages, the
names of the " sub-classes " (when translatable, the names of
animals) cannot perhaps be explained. They have a totemic
appearance.
Totems in Relation to Exogamy. — So far, in this theory nothing
has been said of totems, though it is an all but universal rule
that people of the same totem may not intermarry, even if the
lovers belong to tribes separated by the breadth of the continent.
In fact, according to the hypothesis which has been set forth,
totems, though now exogamous, played no original part in
the evolution of exogamy. They came in by accident, not by
design, and dropped into their place in a system carefully
devised.
Originally, on this theory, a totem came to a child, not as is
usual now, by inheritance, but by pure accident; the mother
supposing that any object which caught her attention at the
moment when she first felt the life of her child, or any article
of food which she had recently eaten, became incarnate in her,
so that the emu (say) which she saw, or had eaten of, was her
child. He or she was an Emu man or woman, by totem was an
Emu.
Certain localities, later, were somehow associated each with
one given object — cat, kangaroo, grub, or anything else, and
now " local totems " (if the phrase may be used) took the place
of " conceptional totems," as among the Arunta. The child
inevitably was of the local totem and its supposed place of
conception.
Finally all tribes except the Arunta " nation " made the totem
hereditary, either from mother or father; and as the mother or
father, an Emu, was in division A, so was the child, and he
or she must marry out of that division into the other, B. 6
The objections taker, to this theory are now to be stated:
6 Frazer, Totemism, i. 157-167.
TOTEMISM
85
(i.) The theory can by no possibility apply to tribes with three
or more main exogamous divisions or phratries, such as we find
in North America. In a three-phratry tribe we are reduced to
suppose that there were three sexes, or resort- to some other
solution not perhaps compatible with the theory, (it.) We have
no evidence that any totemic people, except the Navajoes,
think the closest sexual unions injurious to the parties or their
offspring. The theory is thus merely extracted from the facts —
certain unions are forbidden, therefore they must have been
deemed injurious. Now, even if they were generally thought
injurious, the belief would be a mere inference from the fact
that they were forbidden, (iii.) The supposed original legisla-
tive exogamous division produced a very different effect than
that said to be aimed at, namely, the prohibition of marriage
between brothers and sisters. It forbade to every man marriage
with half the women of his tribe, most of whom were not, even
in the wide native use of the term, his " tribal " sisters, that
is, women in a man's phratry of the same status as his own
sisters. Such relationships, of course, could not exist before
they were created by the supposed Act of Division. It would
have been easy to prohibit marriages of brothers with sisters
directly, just as, though no exogamous rule forbids, the father,
in tribes of female descent, is directly forbidden to marry his
daughters. The natives can take a simple instead of a bewilder-
ing path. To this natural objection Mr Frazer replies: 1 " If we
assume, as we have every right to do, that the founders of exo-
gamy in Australia recognized the classificatory system of rela-
tionship, and the classificatory system of relationship only, we
shall at once perceive that what they intended to prevent was
not merely the marriage of a man with his sister, his mother,
or his daughter in the physical sense in which we use these
terms; their aim was to prevent his marriage with his sister,
his mother and his daughter in the classificatory sense of
these terms; that is they intended to place bars to marriage
not between individuals merely but between the whole groups
of persons who designated their group, not their individual
relationships, their social, not their consanguineous ties, by the
names of father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter.
And in this intention the founders of exogamy succeeded per-
fectly." Mr Frazer's theory of the origin of exogamy appears
now to waver. It was 2 that the primal bisection of the
tribe was " deliberately devised and adopted as a means of
preventing the marriage, at first, of brother with sisters. . . ."
Here was the place to say, if it was then intended to say, that
the Australians " recognized the classificatory system of rela-
tionships only." As a matter of fact they recognize both the
consanguine and the classificatory systems. It is not the
case that " the savage Australian, it may be said with truth,
has no idea of relationships as we understand them, and does
not discriminate between his actual father and mother and
the men and women who belong to the group, each member of
which might have lawfully been either his father or his mother,
as the case may be."
This statement is made inadvertently and unfortunately by
Messrs Spencer and Gillen, 3 but it is contradicted by their
own observations. An Arunta can tell you, if asked, which of
all the men whom he calls " father " is his very own father. 4
The Dieri have terms for " great " (actual) and " little " (tribal)
father, and so for other relationships. In Arunta orgies
a woman's " tribal " " fathers " and " brothers " and " sons "
are admitted to her embraces; her actual father and brothers
and sons are excluded. 5 Thus, if the prohibition be based on
aversion to unions of persons closely akin by blood, as the
actual father is excluded, the actual father, among the Arunta,
is, or has been, amongst that people, regarded as near of blood to
his daughters. The Arunta are ignorant, we are told, of the
part of the male in procreation. Be it so, but there has been
a time when they were not ignorant, and when the father was
recognized as of the nearest kin by blood to his daughters. If
1 Totemism, i. 288.
* Northern Tribes, pp. 95 seq.
4 Central Tribes, p. 57.
2 Ibid. i. 163.
Totemism, i. 289.
1 Ibid. p. 97.
not, and if the prohibition is based on hatred of unions of
close kin, why is the father excluded? Nothing, in short, can
be more certain than that Australian tribes distinguish between
" social " or " tribal " relations on the one hand, and close
consanguine relations on the other. Among the Arunta office
is inherited by a man from his mother's husband, his father quern
nuptiae demonstrant; not from any " tribal " father. 6
Mr Frazer 7 apparently meant in his earlier statement that
brothers and sisters consanguine, and these only, were to
be excluded from intermarriage, because he went on to say that
science cannot decide as to whether the closest interbreeding
is injurious to the offspring of healthy parents, however near
in blood; and that very low savages could not discover what is
hidden from modern science. He had therefore marriages of
consanguine brothers and sisters present to his mind: " the
closest interbreeding." Brothers and sisters were finally for-
bidden, on this theory, to intermarry, not because of any dread
of injury to the offspring. " The only alternative open to us
seems to be to infer that these unions were forbidden because
they were believed to be injurious to the persons engaged in
them, even when they were both in perfect health." 8 These
" incestuous unions " are between brothers and sisters, mothers
and sons. Here brothers and sisters consanguine, children of the
same mother in each case, certainly appear to be intended. Who
else, indeed, can be intended? But presently 9 we are to assume
that the Australians, before they made the first exogamous
division of the tribe " recognized the classificatory system of
relationship, and the classificatory system only." They meant,
now, to bar marriage between " whole groups of persons,"
related by "social, not consanguineous ties." But this seems
to be physically impossible. These " whole groups " never
existed, and never could exist, as far as we can see, till they
were called into being by the legislative division of the tribe
into two exogamous phratries — which had not yet been made.
How could a man call a whole group of women " nupa," as at
present (the word being applied to his wife and to all women
of the opposite phratry to his whom he might legally marry)
before the new law had constituted such a group? In what
sense, again, were all women of a certain status called my
" sisters " (like my actual sisters) before the new law made a
new group of them — in regard to marriage as sacred as my own
sisters now were to me? It cannot be said that all women
of my status were called, collectively, my " sisters " before the
new division of the tribe and new rule arose, because previously,
all women of my status in the tribe have been my " sisters."
Who else could be collectively my " sisters "? If to marry a
" sister " were reckoned dangerous to her and to me, I must have
been forbidden to marry all the women of my status in the
tribe. How could a law which merely halved the number of my
" sisters " remove the unknown danger from half of them? If
any women except my actual sisters were, before the new rule,
reckoned as socially my sisters, all women in the tribe of a certain
status must have been so reckoned. If all dangerous, I must
marry none of them. But by the new rule, I may marry half
of them! Why have they ceased to be dangerous?
If the theory be that originally only brothers and sisters con-
sanguine were thought dangerous to each other in sexual rela-
tions, and the superstition was later extended so as to include
all " classificatory " brothers and sisters, who were in these
days (before the exogamous division) classificatory brothers and
sisters? How and for what reason were some marriageable
girls in the tribe classificatory sisters of a young man while
others, equally young and marriageable, were not ? The classi-
ficatory brothers and sisters must have been all the marriageable
youth of both sexes in a generation, in the tribe.
But then if all the youth of a generation, of both sexes,
were classificatory brothers and sisters, and if therefore their
unions were dangerous to themselves, or to the crops, the danger
could not be prevented by dividing them into two sets, and
6 See Proceedings of British Academy, iii. 4. Lang, "gOrigin
of Terms of Human Relationships."
7 Totemism, i. 163. 8 Ibid. i. 165. 9 Ibid. i. 288.
86
TOTEMISM
allowing each set of brothers to marry each set of sisters. The
only way to parry the danger was to force all these brothers and
sisters to marry out of the local tribe into another local tribe
with the same superstition. When that was done, the two local
tribes, exogamous and intermarrying, were constituted into the
two- phratries of one local tribe. But that is not the theory of
observers on the spot: their hypothesis is that a promiscuous
and communistic local tribe, for no known or conceivable
reason, bisected itself into two exogamous and intermarrying
" moieties."
On the face of it, it is a fatal objection to the theory that when
men dwelt in an undivided commune they recognized no system
of relationships but the classificatory, yet were well aware of
consanguineous relationships; were determined to prohibit
the marriages of people in such relationships; and included in
the new prohibition people in no way consanguineous, but
merely of classificatory kin. The reformers, by the theory,
were perfectly able to distinguish consanguineous kinsfolk, so
that they might easily have forbidden them to intermarry;
while if all the members of the tribe were not in the classificatory
degrees of relationship, who were? How were persons in classifi-
catory relationships with each other discriminated from other
members of the tribe who were not? They were easily discrim-
inated as soon as the phratries were instituted, but, we think, not
before.
Term of Classificatory Relationships. — Here it is necessary to
say a few words about " classificatory " terms of relationship.
Among many peoples the terms or names which with us denote
relationships of consanguinity or affinity, such as Father,
Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, are
applied both to the individuals actually consanguineous in
these degrees, and also to all the other persons in the speaker's
own main exogamous division or phratry who are of the same
" age-grade " and social status as the Father, Mother, Brother,
Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, and so forth. As a
man thus calls all the women whom he might legally have married
by the same term as he calls his wife, and calls all children of
persons of his own " age-grade," class and status by the same
name as he calls his own children, many theorists hold this to
be a proof of the origin of the nomenclature " in a system of
group marriage in which groups of men exercised marital rights
over groups of women, and the limitation of one wife to one
husband was unknown. Such a system would explain very
simply why every man gives the name of wife to a whole group
of women, and every woman gives the name of husband to a
whole group of men," and so on with all such collective terms
of relationship. 1
Certainly this is a very simple explanation. But if we wished
to explain why every Frenchman applies the name which he
gives to his " wife " (femme) to every " woman " in the world,
it would be rather simpler than satisfactory to say that this
nomenclature arose when the French people lived in absolute
sexual promiscuity. The same reasoning applies to English
" wife," German Weib, meaning " woman," and so on in many
languages. Moreover the explanation, though certainly very
simple, is not " the only reasonable and probable explanation."
Suppose that early man, as in a hypothesis of Darwin's, lived,
not in large local tribes with the present polity of such tribes
in Australia, but in " cyclopean families," where the sire con-
trolled his female mates and offspring; and suppose that he,
from motives of sexual jealousy, and love of a quiet life, forbade
amours between his sons and daughters. Suppose such a society
to reach the dimensions of a tribe. The rules that applied to
brothers and sisters, mothers and sons, would persist, and the
original names for persons in such relationships in the family
would be extended, in the tribe, to all persons of the same
status: new terms being adopted, or old terms extended, to
cover new social relationships created by social laws in a wider
society.
A nother Theory of the Origin of Totemism and Exogamy. — How
this would happen may be seen in studying the other hypothesis
1 Totemism, i. 304.
of exogamy and totemism. 5 Man was at first, as Darwin sup-
posed, a jealous brute who expelled his sons from the neighbour-
hood of his women; he thus secured the internal peace of his
fire circle; there were no domestic love-feuds. The sons there-
fore of necessity married out — were exogamous. As man
became more human, a son was permitted to abide among his
kin, but he had to capture a mate from another herd (exogamy).
The groups received sobriquets from each other, as Emu,
Frog, and so forth, a fact illustrated copiously in the practice
of modern and English and ancient Hebrew villages. 3
The rule was now that marriage must be outside of the local
group-name. Frog may not marry Frog, or Emu, Emu. The
usual savage superstition which places all folk in mystic
rapport with the object from which their names are derived
gradually gave a degree of sanctity to Emu, Frog and the rest.
They became totems.
Perhaps the captured women in group Emu retained and
bequeathed to their children their own group-names; the
children were Grubs, Ants, Snakes, &c. in Emu group. Let
two such groups, Emu and Kangaroo, tired of fighting for
women, make peace with connubium, then we have two phra-
tries, exogamous and intermarrying, Emu and Kangaroo, with
totem kins within them. (Another hypothesis is necessary
if the original rule of all was, as among the Urabunna and other
tribes, that each totem kin must marry out of itself into only one
other totem kin. 4 But we are not sure of the fact of one
totem to one totem marriage.) In short, the existence of the
two main exogamous divisions in a tribe is the result of an alliance
of two groups, already exogamous and intermarrying, not of a
deliberate dissection of a promiscuous horde. 5
The first objection to this system is that it is not held by
observers on the spot, such as Mr Howett and Mr Spencer.
But while all the observed facts of these observers are accepted
(when they do not contradict their own statements, or are not
corrected by fresh observations), theorists are not bound to
accept the hypotheses of the observers. Every possible respect
is paid to facts of observation. Hypotheses as to a stage of
society which no man living has observed may be accepted as
freely from Darwin as from Howitt, Spencer and L. Morgan.
It is next objected that " the only ground for denying that the
elaborate marriage-system" (systems?) "of the Australian
aborigines has been devised by them for the purpose which
it actually serves, appears to be a preconceived idea that these
savages are incapable of thinking out and putting in practice
a series of checks on marriage so intricate that many civilized
persons lack either the patience or the ability to understand
them . . . The truth is that all attempts to trace the origin and
growth of human institutions without the intervention of human
intelligence and will are radically vicious and foredoomed to
failure.", 6 But nobody is denying that the whole set of
Australian systems of marriage is the result of human emotions,
intelligence and will. Nobody is denying that, in course of
time, the aborigines have thought out and by successive steps
have elaborated their systems. The only questions are, what
were the human motives and needs which, in the first instance,
set human intelligence and will to work in these directions ; and
how, in the first instance, did they work? The answers given
to these questions are purely and inevitably hypothetical,
whether given by observers or by cloistered students.
It is objected, as to the origin of totemism, that too much
influence is given to accident, too little to design. The answer
is that " accident " plays a great part in all evolution, and that,
2 Lang and Atkinson, Social Origins and Primal Law. Lang,
Secret of the Totem.
3 Lang, Social Origins and Secret of the Totem.
. 4 Anthropological Essays, pp. 206^209.
6 This theory, already suggested by the Rev. J. Mathew, and Mr
Daniel McLennan, occurred independently to M. Van Gennep, who,
in Mythes et legendes d'Australie, suppressed his chapter on it, after
reading The Secret of the Totem. The conclusions were almost
identical with those of that work (Op. cit. pp. vi. xxxiv.). The
details of the evolution, which are many, may be found in Social
Origins and Primal Law, and revised in The Secret of the Totem.
8 Totemism, i. 280, 281.
TOTEMISM
87
in the opposed theory, the existence and actual exogamous
function of totems is also accidental, arising from ignorance
and a peculiar superstition. It is urged that no men would
accept a nickname given from without by hostile groups. This
is answered by many examples of cases in which tribes, clans,
political parties, and, of course, individuals, have accepted
sobriquets from without, and even when these were hostile and
derisive. 1 It is asked, Why, on this theory, are there but two
exogamous divisions in the tribe? The reply is that in America
there may be three or more: that in the Urabunna there are as
many exogamous divisions (dual) as there are totems, and that
these, like the main exogamous divisions, go in pairs, because
marriage is between two contracting parties. 2
It is maintained in this theory that Australian blacks, who are
reflective and by no means illogical men, have long ago observed
that certain marriages are rigorously barred by their social
system, for no obvious reason. Thus a man learns that he
must not marry in his own main exogamous division, say
Eagle Hawk. He must choose a wife from the opposite division,
Crow. She must belong to a certain set of women, in Crow,
whose tribal status is precisely that, in Crow, of his own sisters,
and his " little sisters " (the women of his sister's status) in
Eagle Hawk. The reflective tribesman does not know why these
rules exist. But he perceives that the marriageable women in
his own main division bear the same title as his sisters by
blood. He therefore comes to the conclusion that they are
all what his own sisters manifestly are, " too near flesh," as the
natives say in English; and that the purpose of the rule is to
bar marriage to him with all the women who bear the name
" sisters " that denotes close consanguinity. Presently he
thinks that other kinsfolk, actual, or bearing the same collective
title as actual kinsfolk of his, are also " too near flesh," and he
goes on to bar them till he reaches the eight class model; or
like some south-eastern tribes, drops the whole cumbrous
scheme in favour of one much like our own.
The reflective savage, in short, acts exactly as the Church
did when she extended to cousins the pre-existing Greek and
Roman prohibitions against the marriages of very near kin;
and, again, extended them still further, to exclude persons not
consanguineous at all but called by the same title as real
consanguines, " father," " mother " and " child " in " gossipred "
— godfather, godmother, godchild.
The savage and ecclesiastical processes are parallel and
illustrate each other. Probably when a tribe with two main
exogamous and intermarrying divisions came into existence in
the way which we have indicated, the names used in families for
father, mother, daughter, son, husband, wife, brother, sister,
were simply extended so as to include, in each case, all persons in
the tribe who were now of the same status, socially, with the
same rights, restrictions and duties, as had been theirs in the
fire-circle before the tribe was made a tribe by the union of two
exogamous and previously hostile intermarrying local groups;
or two sets of such groups. The process is natural; the wide
extension now given to old names of relationships saved the
trouble of making new names. Thus we have found a reasonable
and probable way of accounting for classificatory terminology
without adopting the hypothesis that it arose out of "group-
marriage " and asking " But how did group-marriage arise?"
There is no accident here, all is deliberate and reflective
design, beginning with the purely selfish and. peace-loving
design of the jealous sire. Meanwhile the totemic prohibition,
" no marriage in the same totem name," has been retained and
expanded even beyond the tribe, and " however remote the
hunting grounds " of two persons, they may not intermarry if
their totem name be the same.
Such are the two chief opposed theories of the origins of
exogamy, and of the connexions of exogamy with totemism.
The second does not enjoy the benefit of notice and criticism
in Mr Frazer's Totemism.
1 The Secret of the Totem, pp. 128, 134.
8 For other arguments explaining the duality of the divisions
see Van Gennep, ut supra, p. xxxiv. and note 1.
Relations of the Social and Religious Aspects of Totemism. — It
is a curious fact (if it be accepted as a fact) that the social
aspect of totemism — the prohibition to marry a person of the
same hereditary totem name — is sometimes strongest where
the " religious " prohibition against killing or eating the totem
is weakest; while the highest regard is paid to the totem, or
to the god which is supposed to inhabit the totem species, where
there is no prohibition on marrying within the totem name.
Thus in Australia, where (except in the centre, among the
Arunta) almost all tribes prohibit marriages within the totem
name, it is scarcely possible to find an instance in which irreligious
treatment of the totem, killing or eating it, is (as among many
other totemic peoples) thought to be automatically or " reli-
giously " punished by illness, death or miscarriage. Religion,
in these cases, does not hold that the injured majesty of the
totem avenges itself on the malefactor. On the other hand the
Samoans, who pay no regard to the sacred animal of each
community in the matter of not marrying within his name,
believe that he will inflict death if one of his species be eaten—
and if no expiatory rite be performed. 3 In Samoa, we saw,
the so-called totem is the vehicle of a God; in Australia no such
idea is found.
Meanwhile the offence of marrying within the totem name is
nowhere automatically punished in any way except among the
American Navajos, where, to make certain, the totem kin also
inflicts secular penalties; 4 and it is part of the magic of the
Intichiuma rites for the behoof of the totem that his kin should
eat of him sparingly, as on all occasions they may do. In all
other quarters, where marriage within the totem kin is forbidden,
the penalty of a breach of law has been death or tribal excom-
munication. The offence is secular. The Euahlayi, who never
marry within the totem name, " may and do eat their hereditary
totems with no ill effects to themselves." 6 This is very
common in South Australia. As a rule, however, in Australia
some respect is paid to the actual plant or animal, and some
Northern tribes who inherit the paternal totem respect it almost
as much as the maternal totem. As they also inherit property
in the maternal line, it seems clear that they have passed from
female to male descent, as regards the totem, but not as regards
inheritance. 6
Male and Female Descent of the Totem. — It was the almost
universal opinion of anthropologists that, in the earliest totemic
societies, the totem was inherited from the mother, and that
inheritance from the father was a later development. But when
the peculiar totemism of the Arunta was discovered, and it was
desired to prove that this non-exogamous totemism was the
most primitive extant, it was felt to be a difficulty that the Arunta
reckon descent of everything hereditable in the male, not the
female line. If then, the Arunta were not primitive but advanced,
in this matter as well as in their eight sub-classes and ceremonies,
how could their totemism be primitive? It would have been
easy to reply that a people might be " primitive " in some details
though advanced in others — the fact is notorious. But to escape
from the dilemma the idea was proposed that neither male nor
female descent was more primitive than the other. One tribe
might begin with male, one with female descent. Nobody can
prove that it was not so, but " whereas evidence of the passage
from female to male reckoning may be observed, there is virtually
none of a change in the opposite direction." 7
Thus the Worgaia and Northern neighbours of the Arunta,
with male descent, have certainly passed through a system of
female descent of the totem, and actually inherit property in the
female line, while Strehlow's Aranda or Arunta inherit their
mothers' totems. Moreover Howitt shows us at least one tribe
3 Turner, Samoa, p. 31, sqq.
4 Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 279.
6 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, p. 279.
6 See for Worgaia and Warramunga reverence of the mother's
totem, though they inherit the father's, Spencer and Gillen, Northern
Tribes, p. 166. That these tribes, though reckoning descent in
the paternal line, inherit property in the maternal is certain, see
pp. 523, 524.
'Thomas, ut supra, p. 15.
88
TOTEMISM
with female descent, the Dieri, actually in the process of diverging
from female to male descent of the totem. " A step further is
when a man gives his totem name to his son, who then has those
of both father and mother. This has been done even in the
Dieri tribe," which appears to mean that it is also done in other
tribes. 1
A difficult case in marriage law is explained by saying that
" possibly some man, as is sometimes the case, gave his Murdu
(totem) to his son, who was then of two Murdus, and so could not
marry a girl of one of his two totems." 2 We thus see how the
change from female to male descent of the totem is " directly
led to," as Mr Howitt says, 3 by a man's mere fatherly desire to
have his son made a member of his own totem kin. On the other
hand, we never read that with male descent of the totem a mother
gives hers to son or daughter. All these facts make it hard to
doubt (though absolute proof is necessarily impossible) that
female everywhere preceded male descent of the totem.
Proof of transition from female to male descent of the totem
appears to be positive in some tribes of the south of South
Australia. Among them each person inherits his mother's
totem, and may not marry a woman of the same. But he also
inherits his father's totem, which " takes precedence," and gives
its name to the local group. No person, as apparently among
the Dieri when a father has " given his totem " to a son, may
marry into either his father's or his mother's totem kin (Mrs
Bates).
Thus we have a consecutive series of evolutions: (a) All
inherit the maternal totem only, and must not marry within it.
This is the rule in tribes of south-east Australia with female
descent. (6) Some fathers in this society give their totems to
sons, who already inherit their maternal totems. Such sons can
marry into neither the paternal nor maternal totems. This was
a nascent rule among the Dieri. (c) All inherit both the paternal
and the maternal totem, and may marry into neither (southern
South Australia), (d) All inherit the religious regard for the
maternal totem, but may marry within it, while they may not
marry within the paternal totem (Worgaia and Warramunga of
north central Australia), (e) The paternal totem alone is
religiously regarded, and alone is exogamous (tribes of south-
east Australia with male descent). (/) The totem is neither
hereditary on either, side nor exogamous (Spencer's Arunta).
(g) The maternal totem is hereditary and sacred, but not
exogamous (Strehlow's Arunta).
In this scheme we give the degrees by which inheritance of the
totem from the mother shades into inheritance of the totem from
both parents (Dieri), thence to inheritance of both the maternal
and paternal totem while the paternal alone regulates marriage
(Worgaia and Warramunga), thence to exclusive inheritance of
the paternal, without any regard paid to the maternal totem
(some tribes of South Australia), and so on.
Meanwhile we hear of no tribe with paternal descent of the
totem in which mothers are giving their own totems also to their
children. We cannot expect to find more powerful presumptions
in favour of the opinion that tribes having originally only
maternal have advanced by degrees to only paternal descent of
the totem. Mr Frazer says, " So far as I am aware, there is no
evidence that any Australian tribe has exchanged maternal for
paternal descent, and until such evidence is forthcoming we are
justified in assuming that those tribes which now trace descent
from the father formerly traced it from the mother." 4
We have now provided, however, the evidence for various
transitional stages from maternal to paternal descent, but have
found no traces of the contrary process, nor more than one way of
interpreting the facts. It is admitted by Mr Frazer that in several
North American tribes the change from female to male descent
has to all appearance been made. 5 Among the Delawares the
initial process was much akin to that of the Dieri, who, in a tribe
of female descent, " gives " his own totem to his sons. " The
Delawares had a practice of sometimes naming a child into its
father's clan," and a son thus became a member of his father's
1 N.T.S.E.A. p. 284. 2 Ibid. p. 167.
' Ibid. p. 284. * Totemism, i. 317. 6 Ibid. iii. 42, 58, 72, 80.
clan. This " may very well have served to initiate a change of
descent from the female to the male line." 6 Howitt says pre-
cisely the same thing about the paternal practice of the Dieri.
Thus there is no reason for denying that the change from female
to male descent can be made by Australian as readily as by
American tribes. We have given evidence for every step in the
transition. The opposite opinion arose merely in an attempt
to save the primitiveness of the Arunta, some of whom actually
still make the maternal totem hereditary.
The change to male descent is socially very important. The
totem kin of a man, for example, takes up his blood feud. Where
the descent is female a " man may probably have some (totemic)
kinsmen in the same group, but equally a considerable number
of members of other totem kins." But it is clear that the rule
of male descent gives far greater security to the members of a
local group; for they are surrounded by kinsmen, local totem
groups only occurring where male descent of the totem prevails,
or is predominant. 7 The change from female to male descent of
the totem, or the adoption of male descent from the first (if it
ever occurred) is thus a great social advantage.
The Ways out of Totemism. — While Howitt believed (though
later he wavered in his opinion) that female had always preceded
male descent of the totem, he also observed that with male
descent came in abnormal developments. One of these is that
the people of a district with male descent are often known by
the name of the region, or of some noted object therein (say wild
cherries). 8 They may even regard (or white observers suppose
that they regard) some object as their " local totem," yet they
marry within that so-called totem. But they take to marrying,
not out of the hereditary totem kin, which becomes obsolescent,
but out of their own region into some other given locality. Thus
in the Kurnai tribe there were no inevitable hereditary totems,
but thundung were given by the fathers to lads" when about ten
years old or at initiation." 9 The animal thundung(eldsi brother)
was to protect the boy, or girl (the girl's thundung was called
banung). The names of the creatures, in each case, appear to
have been given to their human brothers and sisters; the
thundung name descended to a man's sons. " The names
are perpetuated " (under male descent) " from generation to
generation in the same locality." 10
Thus it appears that when a Kurnai wishes to marry he
goes to a locality where he finds girls of banung names into
which he may lawfully wed. So far he seems, in fact, to practise
totemic exogamy; that he has to travel to a particular locality
is merely an accident. Though the thundung and banung
names are not inherited at birth by the children, they are given
by the father when the child is old enough to need them. 11
On the whole, we seem to see, in tribes where male descent
is of old standing, that the exogamous function of the totem
becomes obsolete, but a shadow of him, as thundung, retains a
sort of " religious " aspect and even an unappreciated influence
in marriage law.
In Fiji and Samoa, in Melanesia 12 and British New Guinea,
many types of contaminated and variegated survivals of totem-
ism may be studied. In the Torres Islands 13 hero-worship blends
with totemic survivals. As in parts of South Africa, where a
tribe, not a kin, has a sacred animal, as in Fiji, he seems to be the
one survivor of many totems, the totem of some dominant local
6 Totemism, -iii. 42.
7 Except among the Arunta, where, though totems come by
change, local groups are usual. See Spencer and Gillen, Central
Tribes, p. 9. How this occurs we can only guess. See Folk Lore,
vol. xx., No. 2, pp. 229-231. Here it is conjectured that adults
of the totem congregate for the purpose of convenience in performing
Intichiuma, or magical services for the propagation of the totem
as an article of food. For the nature of these rites, common in
the central and northern but unknown to the south-eastern tribes,
see Central Tribes, pp. 167-212, and Northern Tribes, pp. 283-320.
The Arunta totem aggregates are magical local societies.
8 Central Tribes, pp. 8, 9. 9 N.T.S.E.A. p. 146.
10 Ibid. p. 146. _ » Cf. Howitt, ibid. pp. 270-279.
12 Rivers, " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anihrop.
Inst. vol. xxxix.
13 Haddon, Cambridge Expedition, vol. v.
TOTEMISM
89
totem group, before which the other totems have fled, or but
dimly appear, or are vehicles of gods, or, in Africa, of ancestral
spirits. (These African tribal sacred animals are called Siboko 1 .)
Some tribes explain that the Siboko originated in an animal
sobrique, as ape, crocodile, given from without. 2 Sibokoism, the
presence of a sacred animal in a local tribe, can hardly be called
totemism, though it is probable that the totem of the leading
totem kin, among several such totem kins in a tribe, has become
dominant, while the others have become obsolete. On the Gold
Coast of Africa as long ago as 1810, Bowdich 3 found twelve
" families," as he called them, of which most were called by the
name of an animal, plant or other object, more or less sacred
to them. They might not marry a person of the same kindred
name, and there can be little doubt that totemism, with exogamy,
had been the rule. But now the rules are broken down, especially
in the peoples of the coast. The survivals and other informa-
tion may be found in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute
(1906) xxxvi. 178, 188.
There are fainter traces of totemism in the Awemba between
Lake Tanganyika and Lake Bangweolo. 4 A somewhat vague
account of Bantu totems in British East Africa, by Mr C. W.
Hobley, indicates that among exogamous " clans " a certain
animal is forbidden as food to each " clan." 6 The largest
collection of facts about African totemism, from fresh and
original sources, is to be found in Mr Frazer's book. For
totemism in British Columbia the writings of Mr Hill Tout may
be consulted. 6 The Thlinkit tribes have the institution in
what appears to be its earliest known form, with two exogamous
phratries and female descent. Among the Salish tribes " per-
sonal " totems are much more prominent. Mr Hill Tout, with
Professor F. Boas, considers the hereditary exogamous totem
to have its origin in the non-exogamous personal totem, which is
acquired in a variety of ways. The Salish are not exogamous,
and have considerable property and marked distinctions of rank.
It does not, therefore, appear probable that their system of
badges or crests and personal totems is more primitive than the
totemic rules of the less civilized Thlinkits, who follow the form
of the south-east Australian tribes. 7
Other very curious examples of what we take to be aberrant
and decadant totemism in New Guinea are given by Mr Selig-
mann {Man, 1908, No. 89), and by Dr Rivers for Fiji {Man,
1908, No. 75). Mr Seligmann {Man, 1908, No. 100) added to
the information and elucidated his previous statements. The
" clans " in British south-east New Guinea usually bear geo-
graphical names, but some are named after one of the totems
in the " clan." " Every individual in the clan has the same
linked totems," of which a bird, in each case, and a fish seem
to be predominant and may not be eaten. " The clans are
exogamous . . . and descent is in the female line." It appears,
then, that a man, having several totems, all the totems in his
" clan," must marry a woman of another " clan " who has all
the totems of her " clan."
Similar multiplicity of totems, each individual having a
number of totems, is described in Western Australia (Mrs
Bates). In this case the word " totem " seems to be used rather
vaguely and the facts require elucidation and verification.
In this part of Australia, as in Fiji 8 "pour la naissance . . .
l'apparition du totem-animal avait toujours lieu." In Fiji
the mother sees the animal, which does not affect conception,
and " is merely an omen for the child already conceived." But
in Western Australia, as we have seen, the husband dreams
of an animal, which is supposed to follow him home, and to be
the next child borne by his wife If it is correctly stated that
when the husband has dreamed of no animal, while nevertheless
his wife has a baby, the husband spears the man whom he
suspects of having dreamed of an animal, the marital jealousy
1 Frazer, "Totemism, South Africa," Man (1901), No. iii.
2 See Secret of the Totem, pp. 25,26. 3 Mission to Ashanti.
4 Journ. Anlhrop. Inst. (1906), xxxvi. 154.
5 Ibid. (1903), xxxiii. 346-348. 6 Ibid. (1903-1904).
7 See discussion in Secret of the Totem for details and references.
8 Pere Schmidt, Man (1908), No. 84, quoting Pere de Marzan,
Anthropos, ii. 400-405.
takes an unusual form and human life becomes precarious. But
probably the husband has some reason for the direction of his
suspicions. He never suspects a woman.
" The Banks' Islanders," says Mr Frazer, " have retained the
primitive system of conceptional totemism." 9 On the other hand
Dr Rivers, who is here our authority, writes " totemism is absent "
from " the northern New Hebrides, the Banks' and the Terres
groups." 10 In a place where totemism is absent it does not prima
facie seem likely that we shall discover " the primitive system
of conceptional totemism." The Banks' Islanders have no
totemism at all. But they have a certain superstition applying
to certain cases, and that superstition resembles Arunta and
Loritja beliefs, in which Mr Frazer finds the germs of totemism.
The superstition, however, has not produced any kind of
totemism in the Banks' group of isles, at least, no totemism is
found. " There are," writes Dr Rivers, " beliefs which would seem
to furnish the most natural starting-point for totemism, beliefs
which Dr Frazer has been led by the Australian evidence "
(by part of the Australian evidence, we must say) " to regard
as the origin of the institution." Thus, in Banks' Islands we
have the starting-point of the institution, without the institution
itself, and in many Australian tribes we have the institution —
without the facts which are " the most natural starting-point."
As far as they go these circumstances look as if " the most
natural " were not the actual starting-point. The facts are
these: in the Isle of Mota, Banks' group, " many individuals "
are under a tabu not to eat, in each case, a certain animal
or fruit, or to touch certain trees, because, in each case, " the
person is believed to be the animal or fruit in question."
This tabu does not, as in totemism, apply to every individual;
but only to those whose mothers, before the birth of the indivi-
duals, " find an animal or fruit in their loin-cloths." This,
at least, " is usually " the case. No other cases are given.
The women, in each case, are informed that their child " will
have the qualities of the animal " (or fruit) " or even, it appeared
would be himself or herself the animal " (or fruit). A coco-nut
or a crocodile, a flying fox or a brush turkey, could not get
inside a loin-cloth; the animal and fruits must be of exiguous
dimensions. When the animal (or fruit) disappears " it is
believed that it is because the animal has at the time of its dis-
appearance entered into the woman. It seemed quite clear that
there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part
of the animal nor of the entry of a material object in the form
of the animal . . , but, so far as I could gather, an animal
found in this way was regarded as more or less supernatural, a
spirit animal and not one material, from the beginning."
" There was no ignorance of the physical role of the human
father, and the father played the same part in conception as
in cases unaccompanied by an animal appearance." The part
played by the animal or fruit is limited to producing a tabu
against the child eating it, in each case, and some community
of nature with the animal or fruit. Nothing here is hereditary.
The superstition resembles some of those of the Arunta, Loritja
and Euahlayi. Among the Euahlayi the superstition has no
influence; normal totemism prevails; among the Arunta nation
it is considered to be, and Dr Rivers seems to think that it is,
likely to have been the origin of totemism. In Mota, however,
it either did not produce totemism, or it did; and, where the
germ has survived in certain cases, the institution has disappeared
— while the germinal facts have vanished in the great majority
of totemic societies. Dr Rivers does not explain how a brush
turkey, a sea snake or a flying fox can get into a woman's
loin-cloth, yet these animals, also crabs, are among those tabued'
in this way. Perhaps they have struck the woman's fancy
without getting into her loin-cloth.
It is scarcely correct to say that " the Banks' Islanders
have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism."
They only present, in certain instances, features like those which
are supposed to be the germs of a system of conceptional
9 Man, iv. 128.
10 " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst,
xxxix. 173, sqq.
9°
TOTEMISM
totemism. In the case of the Arunta we have demonstrated
that hereditary and exogamous totemism of the normal type
preceded the actual conceptional method of acquiring, by local
accident, " personal totems." If the Banks' Islanders were
ever totemists they have ceased to be so, and merely retain, in
cases, a superstition analogous to that which, among the Arunta,
with the aid of the stone churinga, has produced the present
unique and abnormal state of affairs totemic.
For totemism in India, see Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal;
for the north of Asia, Strahlenberg's Description, &c. (1738) ; and in
all instances Mr Frazer's book.
Myths of Totem Origins. — The myths of savages about the
origin of totemism are of no historical value. Not worshipping
ancestral spirits, an Australian will not, like an ancestor-
worshipping African, explain his totem as an ancestral spirit.
But where, as in the north and centre, he has an elaborate
philosophy of spirits, there the primal totems exude spirits
which are incarnated in women.
In their myths as to the origin of totemism, savages vary
as much as the civilized makers of modern hypotheses. Some
claim descent from the totem object; others believe that an
original race of animals peopled the world; animals human in
character, but bestial, vegetable, astral or what not, in form.
These became men, while retaining the rapport with their
original species; or their spirits are continually reincarnated in
women and are born again (Arunta of Messrs Spencer and
Gillen) ; or spirits emanating from the primal forms, or from
objects in nature, as trees or rocks, connected with them, enter
women and are reincarnated (Arunta of Mr Strehlow and some
Australian north-western tribes, studied by Mrs Bates).
Other Australians believe that the All-Father, Baiame, gave
totems and totemic laws to men. 1 There are many other explana-
tory myths wherever totemism, or vestiges thereof, is found in
Australia, Africa, America and Asia.
All the myths of savages, except mere romantic Marchen, and
most of the myths of peoples who, like the Greeks, later became
civilized, are " aetiological," that is, are fanciful hypotheses
made to account for everything, from the universe, the skies,
the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, rites and ceremonies, to the
habits and markings of animals. It is granted that almost all of
these fables are historically valueless, but an exception has been
made, by scholars who believe that society was deliberately
reformed by an act bisecting a tribe into two exogamous divisions,
for savage myths which hit on the same explanation. We might
as well accept the savage myths which hit on other explanations,
for example the theory that Sibokoism arose from animal
sobriquets. Exceptions are also made for Arunta myths in
which the primal ancestors are said to feed habitually if not
exclusively on their own totems. But as many totems, fruit,
flowers, grubs, and so on are only procurable for no longer than
the season of the May-fly or the March-brown, these myths are
manifestly fabulous.
Again the Arunta primal ancestors are said to have cohabited
habitually with women of their own totem, though without
prejudice against women of other totems whom they encountered
in their wanderings. These myths are determined by the
belief in oknanikilla, or spots haunted by spirits all of one totem,
which, again, determine the totem of every Arunta. The
idea being that the fabled primal ancestors male and female
in each wandering group of miracle-workers were always all of
one totem, it follows that, if not celibate, which these savages
never are, they must have cohabited with women of their own
totem, and, by the existing Arunta system, there is no reason
why they should not have done so. In no other field of research
is historical value attributed to savage legends about the
inscrutable past that lies behind existing institutions.
We are thus confronted by an institution of great importance
socially where it regulates marriages and the blood-feud,
or where it is a bond of social union between kinsmen in the
totem or members of a society which does magic for the behoof
1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe.
of its totem (central and north-western Australia), and is of
some " religious " and mythical importance when, as in Samoa,
the sacred animal is regarded as the vehicle of a god. Of the
origin of these beliefs, which have practical effects in the evolution
of society and religion, much, we saw, is conjectured, but as we
know no race in the act of becoming totemic — as in all peoples
which we can study totemism is an old institution, and in most
is manifestly decaying or being transmuted — we can only form
the guesses of which examples have been given. Others may
be found in the works of Herbert .Spencer and Lord Avebury,
and criticisms of all of them may be read in A. Lang's Social
Origins.
Whether or not survivals of totems are to be found in the
animal worship of ancient Egypt, in the animal attendants of
Greek gods, in Greek post-Homeric legends of descent from gods
in various bestial disguises, and in certain ancient Irish legends, it
is impossible to be certain, especially as so many gods are now
explained as spirits of vegetation, to which folk-lore assigns
carnal forms of birds and beasts.
Other Things called Totems. — As has been said, the name
" totem " is applied by scholars to many things in nature which
are not hereditary and exogamous totems. The " local totem "
(so called) has been mentioned, also " linked totems."
Personal Totems. — This is the phrase for any animal or other
object which has been " given " to a person as a protective
familiar, whether by a sorcerer 2 or by a father, or by a congress
of spaewives at birth; or whether the person selects it for him-
self, by the monition of a dream or by caprice. The Euahlayi
call the personal totem Yunbeai, the true totem they style Dhe.
They may eat their real but not their personal totems, which
answer to the hares and black cats of our witches.
Three or four other examples of tribes in which " personal
totems " are " given " to lads at initiation are recorded by
Howitt. 3 The custom appears to be less common in Australia
than in America and Africa (except in South Australia, where
people may have a number of "personal totems"). In one case
the " personal totem " came to a man in a dream, as in North
America. 4 Here it may be noted that the simplest and appar-
ently the easiest theory of the origin of totemism is merely
to suppose that a man, or with female descent a woman,
made his or her personal totem hereditary for ever in his or her
descendants. But nobody has explained how it happened
that while all had evanescent personal totems those of a few
individuals only become stereotyped and hereditary for ever.
Sex-Totems. — The so-called " sex totem " is only reported in
Australia. Each sex is supposed by some tribes to have its
patron animal, usually a bird, and to injure the creature is to
injure the sex. When lovers are backward the women occasion-
ally kill the animal patron of the men, which produces horse-
play, and " a sort of jolly fight," like sky-larking and flirtation. 6
The old English " jolly kind of fight," between girls as partisans
of ivy, and men as of the holly " sex-totem," is a near analogue.
It need not be added that " sex-totems " are exogamous, in
the nature of things.
Sub-Totems. — This is the name of what are also styled " multi-
plex totems," that is, numerous objects claimed for their own
by totem kins in various Australian regions. The Emu totem
kin, among the Euahlayi tribe, claims as its own twenty-three
animals and the north-west wind. 6 The whole universe,
including mankind, was apparently divided between the totem
kins. Therefore the list of sub-totems might be extended
indefinitely. 7 These " sub-totems " are a savage effort at
universal classification.
Conclusion. — We have now covered the whole field of con-
troversy as to the causes and origins of totemic institutions.
Australia, with North America, provides the examples of those
institutions which seem to be " nearest to the beginning,"
and in Australia the phenomena have been most carefully and
2 The Euahlayi Tribe, p.
4 Ibid. p. 154.
6 The Euahlayi Tribe, p.
7 N.T.S.E.A. p. 454.
15-
3 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 144-148.
6 Ibid. pp. 148-151.
TOXILA— T0WES
9*
elaborately observed among peoples the least sophisticated. In ,
North America most that we know of many great tribes,
Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares and others, was collected long ago,
and when precision was less esteemed, while the tribes have
been much contaminated by our civilization. It has been
unavoidably necessary to criticize, at almost every stage, the
conclusions and hypotheses of the one monumental collection
of facts and theories, Mr Frazer's Totemism (iqio). Persons
who would pursue the subject further may consult the books
mentioned in the text, and they will find a copious, perhaps an
exhaustive bibliography in the references of Mr Frazer's most
erudite volumes, with their minute descriptive account not
only of the totemism, but of the environment and general
culture of hundreds of human races, in Savagery and in the
Lower and Higher Barbarism. (A. L.)
TOTILA (d. 552), king of the Ostrogoths, was chosen king
after the death of his uncle Ildibad in 541, his real name being,
as is seen from the coinage issued by him, Baduila. The work
of his life was the restoration of the Gothic kingdom in Italy and
he entered upon the task at the very beginning of his reign,
collecting together and inspiring the Goths and winning a victory
over the troops of the emperor Justinian, near Faenza. Having
gained another victory in 542, this time in the valley of Mugello,
he left Tuscany for Naples, captured that city and then received
the submission of the provinces of Lucania, Apulia and Calabria.
Totila's conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also
by mercy, and Gibbon says " none were deceived, either friends
or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency." Towards
the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and
prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same
time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Beli-
sarius who was advancing to its relief. The Imperial fleet, moving
up the Tiber and led by the great general, only just failed to
succour the city, which must then, perforce, open its gates to
the Goths. It was plundered, although Totila did not carry
out his threat to make it a pasture for cattle, and when the
Gothic army withdrew into Apulia it was from a scene of desola-
tion. But its walls and other fortifications were soon restored,
and Totila again marching against it was defeated by Belisarius,
who, however, did not follow up his advantage. Several
cities were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained
inactive and then left Italy, and in 549 Totila advanced a third
time against Rome, which he captured through the treachery
of some of its defenders. His next exploit was the conquest
and plunder of Sicily, after which he subdued Corsica and Sar-
dinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece. By
this time the emperor Justinian was taking energetic measures
to check the Goths. The conduct of a new campaign was
entrusted to the eunuch Narses; Totila marched against him
and was defeated and killed at the battle of Tagina in July
55 2 -
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, edited by J. B. Bury (1898),
vol. iv; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1896), vol. iv. and
Kampfner, Totila, K'dnig der Ostgoten (1889).
TOTNES, GEORGE CAREW, or Carey, Earl of (1555-1629),
English politician and writer, son of Dr George Carew, dean of
Windsor, a member of a well-known Devonshire family, and Anne,
daughter of Sir Nicholas Harvey, was born on the 29th of May
1555, 1 and was educated at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, where he
took the degree of M.A. in 1588. He distinguished himself
on the field on several occasions and filled important military
commands in Ireland. In 1584 he was appointed gentleman-
pensioner to Queen Elizabeth, whose favour he gained. In 1 586
he was knighted in Ireland. Refusing the embassy to France,
Sir George Carew was made master of the ordnance in Ireland
in 1588, in 1590 Irish privy councillor; and in 1592 lieutenant-
general of the ordnance in England, in which capacity he
accompanied Essex in the expedition to Cadiz in 1596 and to
'According to his own statement, Archaeologia, xii. 401. In the
introduction, however, to the Calendar of Carew MSS. the date of
his birth is given as 1558, and his admission into Broadgates Hall in
1572, aged 15. In the preface to Carew's Letters to F.oe it is given
as 1557-
the Azores in 1597. In 1598 he attended Sir Robert Cecil, the
ambassador, to France. He was appointed treasurer at war to
Essex in Ireland in March 1599, and on the latter's sudden
departure in September of the same year, leaving the island
in disorder, Carew was appointed a lord justice, and in 1600
president of Munster, where his vigorous measures enabled the
new lord deputy, Lord Mountjoy, to suppress the rebellion. He
returned to England in 1603 and was well received by James I.,
who appointed him vice-chamberlain to the queen the same
year, master of the ordnance in 1608, and privy councillor in
1616; and on the accession of Charles I. he became treasurer
to Queen Henrietta Maria in 1626. He sat for Hastings in the
parliament of 1604, and on the 4th of June 1605 was created
Baron Carew of Clopton, being advanced to the earldom of
Totnes on the 5th of February 1626. In 1610 he revisited
Ireland to report on the state of the country; and in 1618 pleaded
in vain for his friend Sir Walter Raleigh. He died on the 27th
of March 1629, leaving no issue. He married Joyce, daughter of
William Clopton, of Clopton in Warwickshire.
Besides his fame as president of Munster, where his administration
forms an important chapter in Irish history, Carew had a consider-
able reputation as an antiquary. He was the friend of Camdenj of
Cotton and of Bodley. He made large collections of materials
relating to Irish history and pedigrees, which he left to his secretary,
Sir Thomas Stafford, reputed on scanty evidence to be his natural
son; while some portion has disappeared, 39 volumes after coming
into Laud's possession are now at Lambeth, and 4 volumes in the
Bodleian Library. A calendar of the former is included in the
State Papers series edited by J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen. His
correspondence from Munster with Sir Robert Cecil was edited in
1864 by Sir John Maclean, for the Camden Society, and his letters
to Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1617) in i860. Other letters or papers are
in the Record Office; among the MSS. at the British Museum and
calendared in the Hist. MSS. Com. Series, Marquess of Salisbury's
MSS. Stafford published after Carew's death Pacata Hibernia, or
the History of the Late Wars in Ireland (1633),, the authorship of
which he ascribes in his preface to Carew, but which has been
attributed to Stafford himself. This was reprinted in 1810 and re-
edited in 1896. A Fragment of the History of Ireland, 3. translation
from a French version of an Irish original, and King Richard II....
in Ireland from the French, both by Carew, are printed in Walter
Harris's Hibernica (1757). According to Wood, Carew contributed
to the history of the reign of Henry V. in Speed's Chronicle. His
opinion on the alarm of the Spanish invasion in 1596 has also been
printed.
See also the Life of Sir P. Carew, ed. by Sir J. Maclean (1857).
TOTNES, a market town and municipal borough in the Totnes
parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Dart,
29 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop.
(1901), 4035. It stands on the west bank of the river, and is
joined by a bridge to the suburb of Bridgetown. It was formerly
a walled town, and two of the four gates remain. Many old
houses are also preserved, and in High Street their overhanging
upper stories, supported on pillars, form a covered way for
foot-passengers. The castle, founded by the Breton Juhel,
lord of the manor after the Conquest, was already dismantled
under Henry VIII.; but its ivy-clad keep and upper walls
remain. The grounds form a public garden. Close by are the
remains of St Mary's Priory, which comprise a large Perpen-
dicular gatehouse, refectory, precinct wall, abbot's gate and
still-house. A grammar school, founded 1554, occupied part
of the Priory, but was removed in 1874 to new buildings. The
Perpendicular church of St Mary contains a number of interest-
ing tombs and effigies dating from the 15th century onwards,
and much excellent carved work. The guildhall is formed from
part of the Priory. Vessels of 200 tons can lie at the wharves
near the bridge. The industries include brewing, flour mill-
ing, and the export of agricultural produce, chiefly corn and
cider. Trout and salmon are plentiful in the river. The town is
governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area
1423 acres.
Totnes ( Toteneis, Totton) was a place of considerable importance
in Saxon times; it possessed a mint in the reign of ^Ethelred,
and was governed by a portreeve. In the Domesday Survey
it appears as a mesne borough under Juhel of Totnes, founder
of the castle and priory; it had 95 burgesses within and 15
without the borough, and rendered military service according
9 2
TOTONICAPAM— TOUCAN
to the custom of Exeter. In 121 5 a charter from John instituted
a gild merchant with freedom from toll throughout the land. A
mayor is mentioned in the court roll of 1386-1387, and a charter
from Henry VII. in 1505 ordered that the mayor should be
elected on St Matthew's day, and should be clerk of the market.
The present governing charter was granted by Elizabeth in
1596, and instituted a governing body of a mayor, fourteen
masters or councillors, and an indefinite number of burgesses,
including a select body called " the Twenty-men." A fresh
charter of incorporation from James II. in 1689 made no altera-
tions of importance. The borough was represented in parlia-
ment by one member in 1295, and by two members from 1298
until disfranchised by the act of 1867. A market on Saturday
existed at least as early as 1255, and in 1608 is described as well
stocked with provisions. The charter of Elizabeth granted a
three days' fair at the feast of SS Simon and Jude (Oct. 28),
and in 1608 fairs were also held on May day and at the feast of
St James (July 25). The market day has been transferred to
Friday, but the May and October fairs are continued. The
town was formerly noted for serges, and in 1641 the inhabitants
represented their distress owing to the decline of the woollen
trade. The industry is now extinct. During the Civil War
General Goring quartered his troops at Totnes, and Fairfax
also made it his temporary station.
See Victoria County History; Devonshire; The History of Totnes,
its neighbourhood and Berry Pomeroy Castle, (Totnes, 1825) ; William
Cotton, A Graphic and Historical Sketch of the Antiquities of Totnes
(London, 1858).
TOTONICAPAM, or Totonicapan, the capital of the depart-
ment of Totonicapam, Guatemala, on the same high plateau as
Quezaltenango, the nearest railway station, from which it is
12 m. E.N.E. Pop. (1905) about 28,000. Totonicapam is
inhabited mainly by Quiche Indians, employed in the making
of cloth, furniture, pottery and wooden musical instruments.
There are hot mineral springs in the neighbourhood. In 1838
Totonicapam was declared an independent republic, in which
the adjoining departments of Solola. and Quezaltenango were
included. This state existed for two years, and was then again
merged in the republic of Guatemala. Totonicapam suffered
greatly in the earthquake of the 18th of April 1902.
TOTTENHAM, an urban district in the Tottenham parlia-
mentary division of Middlesex, England, forming a north
suburb of London, 65 m. north of London Bridge, adjoining
Edmonton on the south. Pop. (1901), 102,541. Its full
name, not now in use, was Tottenham High Cross, from the
cross near the centre of the township. The origin and
significance of this cross are doubtful. The present structure
was erected c. 1600, and ornamented with stucco in 1809. In
the time of Isaak Walton there stood by it a shady
arbour to which the angler was wont to resort. Formerly
Tottenham was noted for its " greens," in the centre of one
of which stood the famous old elm trees called the " Seven
Sisters "; these were removed in 1840, but the name is pre-
served in the Seven Sisters Road. Bruce castle, on the site
of the old mansion of the Bruces, but built probably by Sir
William Compton in the beginning of the 16th century, was
occupied by a boarding-school founded by Mr (afterwards Sir)
Rowland Hill in 1827 on the system instituted by him at Hazle-
wood, Birmingham. It became public property in 1892.
The church of All Hallows, Tottenham, was given by David,
king of Scotland (c. n 26) to the canons of the church of Holy
Trinity, London. It retains Perpendicular portions, a south
porch of brick of the 16th century and numerous ancient monu-
ments and brasses. The grammar school was enlarged and
endowed in 1686 by Sarah, dowager duchess of Somerset. The
urban district formerly included Wood Green to the west, but
this became a separate urban district in 1888 (pop. 34,233).
In the reign of Edward the Confessor the manor of Tottenham
was possessed by Earl Waltheof . It was inherited by his daughter
Maud., who was married first to Simon de St Liz and after-
wards to David, son of Malcolm III., king of Scotland, who was
created by Henry I. earl of Huntingdon, and received possession
of all the lands formerly held by Earl Waltheof. The manor
thus descended to William the Lion, king of Scotland, and was
granted by him in 1184 to his brother David, earl of Angus
and Galloway, the grant being confirmed in 1199 by King
John of England, who created him earl of Huntingdon. He
married Maud, heiress of Hugh, earl of Chester, and his son
John inherited both earldoms. The son married Helen, daughter
of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, by whom he was poisoned in
1237, dying without issue. She retained possession till 1254,
when the manor was divided between his coheirs Robert de
Brus, John de Baliol and Henry de Hastings, each division
forming a distinct manor bearing the name of its owner. In
1429 they were reunited in the possession of John Gedeney,
alderman of London.
William Bedwell, the Arabic scholar, was vicar of Tottenham, and
published in 1632 a Brief e Description of the Towne of Tottenham, in
which he printed for the. first time the burlesque poem, the Turna-
ment of Tottenham.
TOTTENVILLE, a former village of Richmond county, New
York, U.S.A., and since 1898 a part of New York City. It is
on the southern shore of Staten Island in New York Bay and on
Staten Island Sound, about 20 m. S.W. of the south extremity
of Manhattan Island, and is the terminus of the Staten Island
Rapid Transit railway. Marine engines, terra-cotta and boats
are manufactured here, and there are oyster fisheries. The
" Billopp House " here (still standing) was the scene of the con-
ference, on the nth of September 1776, between Lord Howe,
representing Lord North, and Benjamin Franklin, John Adams
and Edward Rutledge, representing the Continental Congress,
with regard to Lord North's offer of conciliation. This house,
originally called the " Manor of Bentley," was built by Captain
Christopher Billopp (1638-1726), who sailed from England in an
armed vessel, the " Bentley," in 1667, and, by circumnavigating
Staten Island in 24 hours, made it, under the ruling of the
duke of York, a part of New York. From the duke of York
he received n 63 acres of land, including the present site of
Tottenville. The village was long known as Bentley, but in
1869 was incorporated (under a faulty charter, revised in 1894)
as Tottenville, apparently in honour of Gilbert Totten, a soldier
in the War of Independence.
TOUCAN, the Brazilian name of a bird, 1 long since adopted
into nearly all European languages, and apparently first given
currency in England (though not then used as an English word)
in 1668 2 by W. Charleton {Onomasticon, p. 115); but the bird,
with its enormous beak and feather-like tongue, was described
by Oviedo in his Sumario de la historia natural de las Indias,
first published at Toledo in 1527 (ch. 42),' and, to quote
the translation of part of the passage in F. Willughby's Ornith-
ology (p. 129)," there is no bird secures her young ones better from
the Monkeys, which are very noisom to the young of most Birds.
For when she perceives the approach of those Enemies, she so
settles her self in her Nest as to put her Bill out at the hole,
and gives the Monkeys such a welcome therewith, that they
presently pack away, and glad they scape so." Indeed, so
remarkable a bird must have attracted the notice of the earliest
European invaders of America, the more so since its gaudy
plumage was used by the natives in the decoration of their per-
sons and weapons. In 1555 P. Belon (Hist. nat. oyseaux, p. 184)
gave a characteristic figure of its beak, and in 1558 Thevet
(Singularitez de la France antarctique, pp. 88-90) a long descrip-
tion, together with a woodcut (in some respects inaccurate,
but quite unmistakable) of the whole bird, under the name
of " Toucan," which he was the first to publish. In 1 560
C. Gesner (I cones avium, p. 130) gave a far better figure (though
1 Commonly believed to be so called from its cry; but Skeat
(Proc. Philolog. Society, May 15, 1885) adduces evidence to prove
that the Guarani Tuca is from t%, nose, and cdng, bone,; i.e. nose of
bone.
2 In 1656 the beak of an " Aracari of Brazil," which was a toucan
of some sort, was contained in the Musaeum tradescantianum (p. 2),
but the word toucan does not appear there.
3 The writer has only been able to consult the reprint of this rare
work contained in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles (xxii. 473-515)1
published at Madrid in 1852.
TOUCH
93
still incorrect) from a drawing received from Ferrerius, and
suggested that from the size of its beak the bird should be called
Burhynchus or Ramphestes. This figure, with a copy of Thevet's
and a detailed description, was repeated in the posthumous
edition (1585) of his larger work (pp. 800, 801). By 1579
Ambroise Pare (CEuvres, ed. Malgaigne, iii. 783) had dissected a
toucan that belonged to Charles IX. of France, and about the
same time Lery (Voyage fait en la terre du Bresil, ch. xi.),
whose chief object seems to have been to confute Thevet, con-
firmed that writer's account of this bird in most respects. In
1500 Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, i. 801-803), always ready to
profit by Gesner's information, and generally without acknow-
ledgment, again described and repeated the former figures of
the bird; but he corrupted his predecessor's Ramphestes into
Ramphastos, and in this incorrect form the name, which should
certainly be Rhamphestes or Rhamphastas, was subsequently
■\dopted by Linnaeus and has since been recognized by system-
atists. Into the rest of the early history of the toucan's discovery
it is needless \o go. 1 Additional particulars were supplied by
many succeeding writers, until in 1834 J. Gould completed his
Monograph of the family 2 (with an anatomical appendix by
R. Owen), to which, in 1835, he added some supplementary
plates; and in 1854 he finished a second and much improved
edition. The most complete compendium on toucans is J.
Cassin's " Study of the Ramphastidae," in the Proceedings
of the Philadelphia Academy for 1867 (pp. 100-124).
By recent systematists 5 genera and from 50 to 60 species of the
family are recognized; but the characters of the former have never
been satisfactorily defined, much less those of numerous subdivisions
which it has pleased some writers to invent. There can be little
doubt that the bird first figured and described by the earliest
authors above named is the R. toco of nearly all ornithologists, and
as such is properly regarded as the type of the genus and therefore
of the family. It is one of the largest, measuring 2 ft. in length,
and has a wide range throughout Guiana and a great part of Brazil.
The huge beak, looking like the great claw of a lobster, more than
8 in. long and 3 high at the base, is of a deep orange colour, with a
large black oval spot near the tip. The eye, with its double iris
of green and yellow, has a broad blue orbit, and is surrounded by a
bare space of deep orange skin. The plumage generally is black,
but the throat is white, tinged with yellow and commonly edged
beneath with red ; the upper tail-coverts are white, and the lower
scarlet. In other species of the genus, 14 to 17 in number, the bill
is mostly particoloured — green, yellow, red, chestnut, blue and black
variously combining so as often to form a ready diagnosis ; but some
of these tints are very fleeting and often leave little' or no trace after
death. Alternations of the Drighter colours are also displayed in
the feathers of the throat, breast and tail-coverts, so as to be in like
manner characteristic of the species, and in several the bare space
round the eye is yellow, green, blue or lilac. The sexes are alike in
coloration, the males being largest. The tail is nearly square or
moderately rounded. In the genus Pteroglossus, the " Aracaris "
(pronounced Arassari), the sexes more or less differ in appearance,
and the tail is graduated. The species are smaller in size, and
nearly all are banded on the belly, which is generally yellow, with
black and scarlet, while except in two the throat of the males at
least is black. One of the most remarkable and beautiful is P.
beauharnaisi, by some authors placed in a distinct genus and called
Beauharnaisius ulocomus. In this the feathers of the top of the
head are very singular, looking like glossy curled shavings of black
horn or whalebone, the effect being due to'the dilatation of the shaft
and its coalescence with the consolidated barbs. Some of the
feathers of the straw-coloured throat and cheeks partake of the same
structure, but in a less degree, while the subterminal part of the
lamina is of a lustrous pearly- white. 3 The beak is richly coloured,
1 One point of some interest may, however, be noticed. In 1705
Plot (N.H. Oxfordshire, p. 182) recorded a toucan found within two
miles of Oxford in 1644, the body of which was given to the repository
in the medical school of that university, where, he said, " it is still to
be seen." Already in 1700 Leigh in his Lancashire (i. 195, Birds,
tab. 1, fig. 2) had figured another which had been found dead on the
coast of that county about two years before. The bird is easily kept
in captivity, and no doubt from early times many were brought alive
to Europe. Besides the one dissected by Par6, as above mentioned,
Joh. Faber, in his additions to Hernandez's work on the Natural
History of Mexico (1651), figures (p. 697) one seen and described by
Puteus (Dal Pozzo) at Fontainebleau.
2 Of this the brothers Sturm in 1 841 published at Nuremberg a
German version.
3 This curious peculiarity naturally attracted the notice of the first
discoverer of the species, Poeppig, who briefly described it in a letter
published in Froriep's Notizen (xxxii. 146) for December 1831.
being green and crimson above and lemon below. The upper
plumage generally is dark green, but the mantle and rump are
crimson, as are a broad abdominal belt, the flanks and many
crescentic markings on the otherwise yellow lower parts. 4 The
group or genus Selenodera, proposed by J. Gould in 1837 (Icones
avium, pt. 1), contains some 6 or 7 species, having the beak, which
is mostly transversely striped, and tail shorter than in Pteroglossus.
Here the sexes also differ in coloration, the males having the head
and breast black, and the females the same parts chestnut; but all
have a yellow nuchal crescent (whence the name of the group). The
so-called hill-toucans have been separated as another genus, Audi-
gena, and consist of some 5 or 6 species chiefly frequenting the slopes
of the Andes and reaching an elevation of 10,000 ft., though one,
often placed among them, but perhaps belonging rather to Ptero-
glossus, the A. bailloni, remarkable for its yellow-orange head, neck
and lower parts, inhabits the lowlands of southern Brazil. Another
very singular form is A ._ laminirostris, which has affixed on either
side of the maxilla, near the base, a quadrangular ivory-like plate,
forming a feature unique in this or almost in any family of birds.
The group Aulacorhamphus, or " groove-bills," with a considerable
but rather uncertain number of species, contains the rest of the
toucans.
The monstrous serrated bill that so many toucans possess was
by G. L. L. Buffon accounted a grave defect of nature, and it must
be confessed that no one has given what seems to be a satisfactory
explanation of its precise use, though on evolutionary principles none
will now doubt its fitness to the bird's requirements. Solid as it
looks, its weight is inconsiderable, and the perfect hinge by which
the maxilla is articulated adds to its efficiency as an instrument
of prehension. W. Swainson (Classif. Birds, ii. 138) imagined it
merely " to contain an infinity of nerves, disposed like net- work, all
of which lead immediately to the nostrils," and add to the olfactory
faculty. This notion seems to be borrowed from J. W. H. Trail
(Trans. Linn. Society, xi. 289), who admittedly had it from Waterton,
and stated that it was " an admirable contrivance of nature to
increase the delicacy of the organ of smell;" but R. Owen's descrip-
tion showed this view to be groundless, and he attributed the
extraordinary development of the toucan's beak to the need of com-
pensating, by the additional power of mastication thus given, for the
absence of any of the grinding structures that are so characteristic
of the intestinal tract of vegetable-eating birds — its digestive organs
possessing a general simplicity of formation. The nostrils are placed
so as to be in most forms invisible until sought, being obscured by
the frontal feathers or the backward prolongation of the horny
sheath of the beak. The wings are somewhat feeble, and the legs
have the toes placed in pairs, two before and two behind. The tail
is capable of free vertical motion, and controlled by strong muscles,
so that, at least in the true toucans, when the bird is preparing to
sleep it is reverted and lies almost flat on the back, on which also
the huge bill reposes, pointing in the opposite direction.
The toucans are limited to the new world, and by far the greater
number inhabit the north of South America, especially Guiana and
the valley of the Amazons. Some three species occur in Mexico, and
several in Central America. One, R. vitellinus, which has its head-
quarters on the mainland, is said to be common in Trinidad, but none
are found in the Antilles proper. They compose the family Rham-
phastidae of Coraciiform birds, and are associated with the wood-
peckers (Picidae) and puff-birds and jacamars (Galbulidae) ; their
nearest allies perhaps exist among the Capitonidae, but none of these
is believed to have the long feather-like tongue which is so charac-
teristic of the toucans, and is, so far as known, possessed besides
only by the Momotidae (see Motmot). But of these last there is no
reason to deem the toucans close relatives, and according to W.
Swainson, who had opportunities of observing both, the alleged
resemblance in their habits has no existence. Toucans in confine-
ment feed mainly on fruit, but little seems amiss to them, and they
swallow grubs, reptiles and small birds with avidity. They nest in
hollow trees, and lay white eggs. (A. N.)
TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teu-
tonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger.
zucchen, to twitch or draw), in physiology, a sense of pressure,
referred usually to the surface of the body. It is often understood
as a sensation of contact as distinguished from pressure, but it
is evident that, however gentle be the contact, a certain amount
of pressure always exists between the sensitive surface and the
body touched. Mere contact in such circumstances is gentle
pressure; a greater amount of force causes a feeling of resistance
or of pressure referred to the skin; a still greater amount causes a
feeling of muscular resistance, as when a weight is supported
on the palm of the hand; whilst, finally, the pressure may be s«
great as to cause a feeling of pain. The force may not be exerted
4 Readers of F. Bates's Naturalist on the River Amazons will
recollect the account (ii. 344) and illustration there given of his
encounter with a flock of this species of toucan. His remarks on
the other species with which he met are also excellent.
94
TOUCH
vertically on the sensory surface, but in the opposite direction,
as when a hair on a sensory surface is pulled or twisted. Touch
is therefore the sense by which mechanical force is appreciated,
and it presents a strong resemblance to hearing, in which the
sensation is excited by intermittent pressures on the auditory
organ. In addition to feelings of contact or pressure referred
to the sensory surface, contact may give rise to a sensation of
temperature, according as the thing touched feels hot or cold.
These sensations of contact, pressure or temperature are usually
referred to the skin or integument covering the body, but they
are experienced to a greater or less extent when any serous or
mucous surface is touched. The skin being the chief sensory
surface of touch, it is there that the sense is most highly
developed both as to delicacy in detecting minute pressures and
as to the character of the surface touched. Tactile impressions,
properly so called, are absent from internal mucous surfaces, as
has been proved in men having gastric, intestinal and urinary
fistulae. In these cases, touching the mucous surface caused
pain, and not a true sensation of touch.
In the article Nerve (Spinal) the cutaneous distribution of the
organs of touch is dealt with.
The Amphibia and Reptilia do not show any special organs of
touch. The lips of tadpoles have tactile papillae. Some snakes
have a pair of tentacles on the snout, but the tongue is probably
the chief organ of touch in most serpents and lizards. All reptiles
possessing climbing powers have the sense of touch highly developed
in the feet.
Birds have epithelial papillae on the soles of the toes that are no
doubt tactile. These are of great length in the capercailzie (Tetrax
urogallus), " enabling it to
grasp with more security the
frosted branches of the Nor-
wegian pine trees " (Owen).
Around the root of the bill
in many birds there are
special tactile organs, assist-
ing the bird to use it as a kind
of sensitive probe for the de-
tection in soft ground of the
worms, grubs and slugs that
constitute its food. Special
bodies of this kind have been
detected in the beak and
tongue of the duck and goose, called the tactile corpuscles of F. S.
Merkel, or the corpuscles of Grandry (fig. i). Similar bodies have
been found in the epidermis of man and mammals, in the outer
root-sheath of tactile hairs or feelers. They consist of small bodies
composed of a capsule enclosing two or more flattened nucleated
cells, piled in a row. Each corpuscle is separated from the others
by a transparent protoplasmic disk. Nerve fibres terminate either
in the cells (Merkel) or in the protoplasmic intercellular matter
(Ranyier, Hesse, Izquierdo). Another form of end-organ has been
described by Herbst as existing in the mucous membrane of the duck's
tongue. These corpuscles of Herbst are like small Pacinian corpuscles
with thin and very close lamellae. Develop-
ments of integument devoid of feathers,
such as the " wattles " of the cock, the
" caruncles " of the vulture and turkey,
are not tactile in their function.
In the great majority of Mammalia the
general surface of the skin shows sensitive-
ness, and this is developed to a high degree
on certain parts, such as the lips, the end
of a teat and the generative organs.
Where touch is highly developed, the skin,
more especially the epidermis, is thin and
devoid of hair. In the monkeys tactile
papillae are found in the skin of the fingers
and palms, and in the skin of the prehen-
sile tails of various species (Ateles). Such
papillae also abound in the naked skin of
the nose or snout, as in the shrew, mole, pig, tapir and elephant.
In the Ornithorhynchus the skin covering the mandibles is tactile
(Owen). In many animals certain hairs acquire great size, length
and stiffness. These constitute the vibrissae or whiskers. Each
large hair grows from a firm capsule sunk deep in the true skin,
and the hair bulb is supplied with sensory nerve filaments. In
the walrus the capsule is cartilaginous in texture. The marine
Carnivora have strong vibrissae which " act as a staff, in a way
analogous to that held and applied by the hand of a blind man
(Owen). Each species has hairs of this kind developed on the
eyebrows, lips or cheeks, to suit a particular mode of existence,
as, for example, the long fine whiskers of the night-prowling
felines, and in the aye-aye, a monkey having nocturnal habits.
Fig. i.
-Tactile Corpuscles from
duck's tongue.
n, Nerve.
' Fig. 2. — Tactile Cor-
puscle from the hand.
In the Ungulata the hoofs need no delicacy of touch as regards
the discrimination of minute points. Such animals, however, have
broad, massive sensations of touch, enabling them to
appreciate the firmness of the soil on which they tread,
and under the hoof we find highly vascular and sen-
sitive lamellae or papillae, contributing
no doubt, not only to the growth of the
hoof, but also to its sensitiveness. The
Cetacea have numerous sensory papillae
in the skin. Bats have the sense of
touch strongly developed in the wings
and external ears, and in some species
in the flaps of skin found near the nose.
There is little doubt that many special
forms of tactile organs will be found in
animals using the nose or feet for bur-
rowing. A peculiar end-organ has been
found in the nose of the mole, while there
are " end-capsules " in the tongue of the ^
elephant and " nerve rings " in the ears n ■*»'
of the mouse.
F1G.3. — Tactile Corpuscles
from clitoris of rabbit.
n, Nerve.
End-Organs of Touch in Man. — In
man three special forms of tactile
end-organs have been described, and can be readily demon-
strated.
1. The End-Bulbs of Krause. — These are oval or rounded
bodies, from -g^ft to -j-^ of an inch long. Each consists of a
delicate capsule, composed of nucleated connective tissue
'Fig. 4. — End-Bulb from
human conjunctiva,
o, Nucleated capsule.
b, Core.
c, Entering nerve-fibre
terminating in the
core at d.
Fig. 5. — End-Bulb from
conjunctiva of calf.
n, Nerve.
enclosing numerous minute cells. On tracing the nerve fibre,
it is found that the nerve sheath is continuous with the capsule,
whilst the axis cylinder of the nerve divides into branches
which lose themselves among the cells. W. Waldeyer and
Longworth state that the nerve fibrils terminate in the cells,
thus making these bodies similar to the cells described by F. S.
Merkel {ut supra) . (See fig. 4.) These bodies are found in the
deeper layers of the conjunctiva, margins of the lips, nasal
mucous membrane, epiglottis, fungiform and circumvallate
papillae of the tongue, glans penis and clitoris, mucous membrane
of the rectum of man, and they have also been found on the
under surface of the " toes of the guinea-pig, ear and body of
the mouse, and in the wing of the bat " (Landois and Stirling).
In the genital organs aggregations of end-bulbs occur, known
as the " genital corpuscles of Krause " (fig. 3). In the synovial
membrane of the joints of the fingers there are larger end-bulbs,
each connected with three four nerve-filaments.
(2) The Touch Corpuscles of Wagner and Meissner. — These
are oval bodies, about -gfo of an inch long by ^-J-^ of an inch in
breadth. Each consists of a series of layers of connective tissue
arranged transversely, and containing in the centre granular
matter with nuclei (figs. 2, 3 and 6). One, two or three
nerve fibres pass to the lower end of the corpuscle, wind
transversely around it, lose the white substance of Schwann,
penetrate into the corpuscle, where the axis cylinders, dividing,
end in some way unknown. The corpuscles do not contain
any soft core, but are apparently built up of irregular septae
of connective tissue, in the meshes of which the nerve fibrils
end in expansions similar to Merkel's cells. Thin describes
simple and compound corpuscles according to the number of
nerve fibres entering them. These bodies are found abundantly
TOUCH
95
in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where there
may be as many as 21 to every square millimetre (1 mm. =
■fa inch). They are not so numerous on the back of the
hand or foot, mamma, lips and tip of the tongue, and they
are rare in the genital organs.
3. The Corpuscles of Vater or
Pacini. — These, first described by
Vater so long ago as 1741, are small
oval bodies, quite visible to the naked
eye, from fa to fa of an inch long and
(From Landois and Stirling, after Biesiadecki.)
Fig. 6. — Vertical Section of the Skin of
the Palm of the Hand.
a, Blood-vessel.
b, Papilla of the cutis vera.
c, Capillary.
d, Nerve-fibre passing to a touch-
corpuscle.
e, Wagner's touch-corpuscle.
/, Nerve-fibre, divided transversely,
g, Cells of the Malpighian layer of the
skin.
Fig. 7. — Vater'sor Pacini's
Corpuscle.
a, Stalk.
b, Nerve-fibre entering it.
c, d, Connective-tissue en-
velope.
e, Axis cylinder, with its
end divided at /.
fa to fa of an inch in breadth, attached to the nerves of the
hands and feet. They can be readily demonstrated in the
mesentery of the cat (fig. 7). Each corpuscle consists of 40 to
50 lamellae or coats, like the folds of an onion, thinner and
closer together on approaching the centre. Each lamella is
formed of an elastic material mixed with delicate connective-
tissue fibres, and the inner surface of each is lined by a single
continuous layer of endothelial cells. A double-contoured nerve
fibre passes to each. The white substance of Schwann becomes
continuous with the lamellae, whilst the axis cylinder passes into
the body, and ends in a small knob or in a plexus. Some-
times a blood-vessel also penetrates the Pacinian body, entering
along with the nerve. Such bodies are found in the sub-
cutaneous tissue on the nerves of the fingers and toes, near
joints, attached to the nerves of the abdominal plexuses of
the sympathetic, on the coccygeal gland, on the dorsum
of the penis and clitoris, in the meso-colon, in the course
of the intercostal and periosteal nerves, and in the capsules of
lymphatic glands.
Physiology of Touch in Man. — Such are the special end-organs
of touch. It has also been ascertained that many sensory
nerves end in a plexus or network, the ultimate fibrils being
connected with the cells of the particular tissue in which they
are found. Thus they exist in the cornea of the eye, and at
the junctions of tendons with muscles. In the latter situation
'' flattened end-flakes or plates " and " elongated oval end-
bulbs " have also been found. A consideration of these
various types of structure show that they facilitate intermittent
pressure being made on the nerve endings. They are all, as it
were, elastic cushions into which the nerve endings penetrate,
so that the slight' variation of pressure will be transmitted to
the nerve. Probably also they serve to break the force of a
sudden shock on the nerve endings.
Sensitiveness and Sense of Locality. — The degree of sensitiveness
of the skin is determined by finding the smallest distance at which
the two points of a pair of compasses can be felt. This method
first followed by Weber, is employed by physicians in the diagnosis
1 1 1 1] 1 1 M 3:
r
il l 1 l i t 1 1 1 ft 1 1 1 if 1 1 eft
Fig. 8. — Aesthesiometer of Sieveking.
of nervous affections involving the sensitiveness of the skin. The
following table shows the sensitiveness in millimetres for an adult.
Mm.
Tip of tongue i-i
Third phalanx of finger, volar surface 2-2-3
Red part of the lip 4-5
Second phalanx of finger, volar surface 4~4 - 5
First phalanx of finger, volar surface 5—5-5
Third phalanx of finger, dorsal surface 6-8
Tip of nose 6-8
Head of metacarpal bone, volar 5-6-8
Ball of thumb 6-5-7
Ball of little finger 5'5-6
Centre of palm 8-9
Dorsum and side of tongue; white of the lips; metacarpal
part of the thumb 9
Third phalanx of the great toe, plantar surface . ... 11-3
Second phalanx of the fingers, dorsal surface . . . . 11-3
Back 1 1 -3
Eyelid 11-3
Centre of hard palate 13-5
Lower third of the forearm, volar surface ..... 15
In front of the zygoma 15-8
Plantar surface of the great toe 15-8
Inner surface of the lip 20-3
Behind the zygoma 22-6
Forehead 22-6
Occiput 27-1
Back of the hand 31-6
Under the chin 33-8
Vertex 33-8
Knee 36-1
Sacrum (gluteal region) 44-6
Forearm and leg 45-1
Neck 54-1
Back of the fifth dorsal vertebra; lower dorsal and lumbar
region 54-1
Middle of the neck 67-7
Upper arm ; thigh ; centre of the back 67-7
These investigations show not only that the skin is sensitive,
but that one is able with great precision to distinguish the part
touched. This latter power is usually called the sense of locality,
and it is influenced by various conditions. The greater the number
of sensory nerves in a given area of skin the greater is the degree
of accuracy in distinguishing different points. Contrast in this
way the tip of the finger and the back of the hand. Sensitiveness
increases from the joints towards the extremities, and sensitiveness
is great in parts of the body that are actively moved. The sensibility
of the limbs is finer in the transverse axis than in the long axis of
the limb, to the extent of J on the flexor surface of the upper limb
and I on the extensor surface. It is doubtful if exercise improves
sensitiveness, as Francis Galton found that the performances of
blind boys were not superior to those of other boys, and he says that
" the guidance of the blind depends mainly on the multitude of
collateral indications, to which they give much heed, and not their
superiority to any one of them." When the skin is moistened
with indifferent fluids sensibility is increased. Suslowa made the
curious discovery that, if the area between two points distinctly
felt be tickled or be stimulated by a weak electric current, the
impressions are fused. Stretching the skin, and baths in water
containing carbonic acid or common salt, increase the power of
localizing tactile impressions. In experimenting with the com-
passes, it will be found that a smaller distance can be distinguished
if one proceeds from greater to smaller distances than in the reverse
direction. A smaller distance can also be detected when the points
of the compasses are placed one after the other on the skin than
when they are placed simultaneously. If the points of the com-
passes are unequally heated, the sensation of two contacts becomes
confused. An anaemic condition, or a state of venous congestion,
or the application of cold, or violent stretching of the skin, or the
use of such substances as atropine, daturin, morphia, strychnine,
alcohol, bromide of potassium, cannabin and hydrate of chloral
blunt sensibility. The only active substance said to increase it
is caffein.
9 6
TOUCH
Absolute sensitiveness, as indicated by a sense of pressure, has
been determined by various methods. Two different weights are
placed on the part, and the smallest difference in weight that can
be perceived is noted. Weber placed small weights directly on the
skin; Aubert and Kammler loaded small plates; Dohrn made use
of a balance, having a blunt point at one end of the beam, resting on
the skin, whilst weights were placed on the other end of the beam
to equalize the pressure; H. Eulenberg invented an instrument like
a spiral spring paper-clip or balance (the baraesthesiometer), having
an index showing the pressure in grammes; F. Goltz employed
an India-rubber tube filled with water, and this, to ensure a constant
surface of contact, bent at one spot over a piece of cork, is touched
at that spot by the cutaneous part to be examined, and, by rhyth-
mically exerted pressure, waves analogous to those of the arterial
pulse are produced in the tube ; and L. Landois invented a mercurial
balance, enabling him to make rapid variations in the weight without
giving rise to any shock. These methods have given the following
general results, (i) The greatest acuteness is on the forehead,
temples and back of the hand and forearm, which detect a pressure
of 0-O02 gramme; fingers detect 0-005 to 0-015 gramme; the chin,
abdomen and nose 0-04 to 0-05 gramme. (2) Goltz's method gives
the same general results as Weber's experiment with the compasses,
with the exception that the tip of the tongue has its sensation of
pressure much lower in the scale than its sensation of touch. (3)
Eulenberg found the following gradations in the fineness of the
pressure sense: the forehead, lips, back of the cheeks, and temples
appreciate differences of -^ to ^ (200: 205 to 300: 310 grammes).
The back of the last phalanx of the fingers, the forearm, hand,
first and second phalanges, the palmar surface of the hand, forearm
and upper arm distinguish differences of ^ to fa (200 : 220 to 200 :
210 grammes). The front of the leg and thigh is similar to the fore-
arm. Then follow the back of the foot and toes, the sole of the foot,
and the back of the leg and thigh. Dohrn placed a weight of
I gramme on the skin, and then determined the least additional weight
that could be detected, with this result: third phalanx of finger
0-499 gramme; back of the foot, 0-5 gramme; second phalanx, 0-771
gramme; first phalanx, 0-82 gramme; leg, I gramme; back of hand,
1-156 grammes; palm, 1-108 grammes; patella, 1-5 grammes; fore-
arm, I -99 grammes; umbilicus, 3-5 grammes; and back, 3-8 grammes.
(4) In passing from light to heavier weights, the acuteness increases
at once, a maximum is reached, and then with heavy weights the
power of distinguishing the differences diminishes. (5) A sensation
of pressure after the weights have been removed may be noticed
(after-pressure sensation), especially if the weight be considerable.
(6) Valentine noticed that, if the finger were held against a blunt-
toothed wheel, and the wheel were rotated with a certain rapidity,
he felt a smooth margin. This was experienced when the intervals
of time between the contacts of successive teeth were less than from
ilo t0 r,j;> of a second. The same experiment can be readily made
by holding the finger over the holes in one of the outermost circles
of a large syren rotating quickly: the sensations of individual
holes become fused, so as to give rise to a feeling of touching a slit.
(7) Vibrations of strings are detected even when the number is
about 1500 per second; above this the sensation of vibration ceases.
By attaching bristles to the prongs of tuning-forks and bringing
these into contact with the lip or tongue, sensations of a very acute
character are experienced, which are most intense when the forks
vibrate from 600 to 1500 per second.
Information from Tactile Impressions. — These enable us to come
to the following conclusions. (1) We note the existence of some-
thing touching the sensory surface. (2) From the intensity of the
sensation we _ determine the weight, tension or intensity of the
pressure. This sensation is in the first instance referred to the skin,
but after the pressure has reached a certain amount muscular
sensations are also experienced — the so-called muscular sense.
(3) The locality of the part touched is at once determined, and from
this the probable position of the touching body. Like the visual
field, to which all retinal impressions are referred, point for point,
there is a tactile field, to which all points on the skin surface may be
referred. (4) By touching a body at various points, from the
difference of pressure and from a comparison of the positions of
various points in the tactile field we judge of the configuration of
the body. A number of " tactile pictures " are obtained by passing
the skin over the touched body, and the shape of the body is further
determined by a knowledge of the muscular movements necessary
to bring the cutaneous surface into contact with different portions
of it. If there is abnormal displacement of position, a false con-
ception may arise as to the shape of the body. Thus, if a small
marble or a pea be placed between the index and middle finger so
as to 'touch (with the palm downwards) the outer side of the index
finger and the inner side of the middle finger, a sensation of touching
one round body is experienced ; but if the fingers be crossed, so that
the marble touches the inner side of the index finger and the outer
side of the middle finger, there will be a feeling of two round bodies,
because in these circumstances there is added to the feelings of
contact a feeling of distortion (or of muscular action) such as would
take place if the fingers, for purposes of touch, were placed in that
abnormal position. Again, as showing that our knowledge of the
tactile field is precise, there is the well-known fact that when a piece
of skin is transplanted from the forehead to the nose, in the operation
for removing a deformity of the nose arising from lupus or other
ulcerative disease, the patient feels the new nasal part as if it were
his forehead, and he may have the curious sensation of a natal
instead of a frontal headache. (5) From the number of points
touched we judge as to the smoothness or roughness of a body. A
body having a uniformly level surface, like a billiard ball, is smooth ;
a body having points irregular in size and number in a given area
is rough ; and if the points are very close together it gives rise to a
sensation, like that of the pile of velvet almost intolerable to some
individuals. Again, if the pressure is so uniform as not to be felt,
as when the body is immersed in water (paradoxical as this may seem,
it is the case that the^ sensation of contact is felt only at the limit
of the fluid), we experience the sensation of being in contact with a
fluid. _ (6) Lastly, it would appear that touch is always the result
of variation of pressure. No portion of the body when touching
anything can be regarded as absolutely motionless, and the slight
oscillations of the sensory surface, and in many cases of the body
touched, produce those variations of pressure on which touch
depends.
To explain the phenomenon of the tactile field, and more specially
the^ remarkable variations of tactile sensibility above described,
various theories have been advanced, but none are satisfactory.
(See article " Cutaneous Sensations " by C. S. Sherrington in
Schafer's Physiology, ii. 920). Research shows that the sensation
of touch may be referred to parts of the skin which do not contain
the special end organs associated with this sense, and that filaments
in the Malpighian layer (the layer immediately above the papillae
of the true skin) may form the anatomical basis of the sense. The
skin may be regarded, also, as an extensive surface containing
nervous arrangements by which we are brought into relation with
the outer world. Accordingly, touch is not the only sensation
referred to the skin, but we also refer sensations of temperature
(heat and cold), and often those peculiar sensations which we call
pain.
Sensations of Temperature. — These depend on thermic irritation
of the terminal organs, as proved by the following experiment of
E. H. Weber: " If the elbow be dipped into a very cold fluid, the
cold is only felt at the immersed part of the body (where the fibres
terminate) ; pain, however, is felt in the terminal organs of the ulnar
nerve, namely, in the finger points; this pain, at the same time,
deadens the local sensation of cold. " If the sensation of cold were
due to the irritation of a specific-nerve fibre, the sensation of cold
would be referred to the tips of the fingers. When any part of the
skin is above its normal mean temperature, warmth is felt; in the
opposite case, cold. The normal mean temperature of a given area
varies according to the distribution of hot blood in it and to the
activity of nutritive changes occurring in it. When the skin is brought
into contact with a good conductor of heat there is a sensation of
cold. A sensation of heat is experienced when heat is carried to
the skin in any way. The following are the chief facts that have
been ascertained regarding the temperature sense: (1) E. H.
Weber found that, with a skin temperature of from 15-5° C.to 35° C,
the tips of the fingers can distinguish a difference of 0-25° C. to 0-2 ° C.
Temperatures just below that of the blood (33°-27° C.) are
distinguished by the most sensitive parts, even to 0-05° C. (2) The
thermal sense varies in different regions as follows : tip of tongue,
eyelids, cheeks, lips, neck, belly. The " perceptible minimum " was
found to be, in degrees C: breast 0-4°; back, 0-9°; back of hand, 0-3°;
palm, o-4°;arm, 0-2°; back of foot, 0-4°; thigh, 0-5°; leg, 0-6° to 0-2°;
cheek, 0-4° ; temple, 0-3 °. (3) If two different temperatures are applied
side by side and simultaneously, the impressions often fuse, especially
if the areas are close together. (4) Practice is said to improve the
thermal sense. (5) Sensations of heat and cold may curiously
alternate; thus when the skin is dipped first into water at io° C.
we feel cold, and if it be then dipped into water at 16 C. we have at
first a feeling of warmth, but soon again of cold. (6) The same
temperature applied to a large area is not appreciated in the same
way as when applied to a small one; thus " the whole hand when
placed in water at 29-5° C. feels warmer than when a finger is
dipped into water at 32 ° C. "
There is every reason to hold that there are different nerve fibres
and different central organs for the tactile and thermal sensations,
but nothing definite is known. The one sensation undoubtedly
affects the other. Thus the minimum distance at which two com-
pass points are felt is diminished when one point is warmer than
the other. Again, a colder weight is felt as heavier, " so that the
apparent difference of pressure becomes greater when the heavier
weight is at the same time colder, and less when the lighter weight
is colder, and difference of pressure is felt with equal weights of
unequal temperature " (E. H. Weber). Great sensibility to differ-
ences of temperature is noticed after removal, alteration by vesicants,
or destruction of the epidermis, and in the skin affection called
herpes zoster. The same occurs in some cases of locomotor ataxy.
Removal of the epidermis, as a rule, increases tactile sensibility
and the sense of locality. Increased tactile 'sensibility is termed
hyperpselaphesia, and is a rare phenomenon in nervous diseases.
Paralysis of the tactile sense is called hypopselaphesia, whilst its
entire loss is apselaphesia. Brown-Sequard mentions a case in
ToOftfr^
*h
which contact of two points gave rise to a sense of a third point of
contact. Certain conditions of the nerve centres affect the senses
both of touch and temperature. Under the influence of morphia
the person may 'feel abnormally enlarged or diminished in size. As
a rule the senses are affected simultaneously, but cases occur where
one may be affected more than the other.
Sensations of heat and cold are chiefly referred to the skin, and
only partially to some mucous membranes, such as those of the
alimentary- canal. Direct irritation of a nerve does not give rise
to these sensations. The exposed pulp of a diseased tooth, when
irritated by hot or cold fluids, gives rise to pain, not to sensations
of temperature. It has now been ascertained that there are minute
areas on the skin in which sensations of heat and cold may be more
acutely felt than in adjoining areas; and, further, that there are
points stimulated by addition of heat, hot spots, while others are
stimulated by withdrawal of heat, cold spots.
A simple method of demonstrating this phenomenon is to
use a solid cylinder of copper, 8 in. in length by J in. in thick-
ness, and sharpened at one end to a fine pencil-like point. Dip
the pointed end into very hot water, close the eyes, and touch
parts of the skin. When a hot spot is touched, there is an acute
sensation of burning. Such a spot is often near a hair. Again,
in another set of experiments, dip the copper pencil into ice-cold
water and search for cold spots. When one of these is touched, a
sensation of cold, as if concentrated on a point, is experienced. Thus
it may be demonstrated that in a given area of skin there may be
hot spots, cold spots and touch spots.
Cold spots are more abundant than hot spots. The spots are
arranged in curved lines, but the curve uniting a number of cold
spots does not coincide with the curve forming a chain of hot spots.
By Weber's method it will be found that we can discriminate cold
spots at a shorter distance from each other than hot spots. Thus
on the forehead cold spots have a minimum distance of 8 mm,, and
hot spots 4 mm.; on the skin of the breast, cold spots 2 mm., and
hot spots 5 mm.; on the back, cold spots 1-5 mm., and hot spots
4 to 6 mm.; on the back of the hand, cold spots 3 mm., and hot
spots 4 mm.; on the palm, cold spots 8 mm., and hot spots 2 mm.;
and on the thigh and leg, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 3-5 mm.
Electrical and mechanical stimulation of the hot or cold spots call
forth the corresponding sensation. No terminal organ for dis-
crimination of temperature has yet been found. It will be observed
that the sensation of heat or cold is excited by change of temperature,
and that it is more acute and definite the more sudden the change.
Thus discrimination of temperature is similar to discrimination of
touch, which depends on more or less sudden change of pressure.
The term cold means, physiologically, the sensation we experience
when heat is abstracted, and the term heat, the sensation felt when
heat is added to the part. Thus we are led to consider that the skin
contains at least two kinds of specific terminal organs for sensations
of touch and temperature, and two sets of nerve fibres which carry
the nervous impulses to the brain. In all probability, also, these
fibres have different central endings, and in their course to the brain
run in different tracts in the spinal cord. This will explain cases
of disease of the central nervous system in which, over certain areas
of skin, sensations of touch have been lost while sensations of tem-
perature and pain remain, or vice versa. Tactile and thermal
impressions may influence each other. Thus a leg sent to "sleep"
by pressure on the sciatic nerve will be found to be less sensitive
to heat, but distinctly sensitive to cold. In some cases of disease
it has been noticed that the skin is sensitive to a temperature above
that of the limb, but insensitive to cold. It is highly probable that
just as we found in the case of touch (pressure), the terminal organs
connected with the sense of temperature are the fine nerve filaments
that have been detected in the deeper strata of the Malpighian region
of the epidermis, immediately above the true skin, and it is also
probable that certain epidermic (epithelial) cells in that region
play their part in the mechanism. Sensations of a painful character
may also, in certain circumstances, be referred to the viscera, and
to mucous and serous surfaces. Pain is not a sensation excited by
irritating the end organs either of touch or of temperature, nor
even by irritating directly the filaments of a sensory nerve. Even
if sensory nerves are cut or- bruised, as in surgical operations, there
may be no sensations of pain; and it has been found that muscles,
vessels and even the viscera, such as the heart, stomach, liver or
kidneys, may be freely handled without giving rise to any feeling
of pain, or indeed to any kind of sensation. These parts, in ordinary
circumstances appear to be insensitive, and yet they contain afferent
nerves. If the sensibility of these nerves is heightened, or possibly
if the sensitiveness of the central terminations of the nerves is raised,
then we may have sensations to which we give the name of pain.
In like manner the skin is endowed with afferent nerves, distinct
from those ministering to touch and to temperature, along which
nervous impulses are constantly flowing. When these nervous
impulses reach the central nervous system in ordinary circumstances
they do not give rise to changes that reach the level of consciousness,
but they form, as it were, the warp and woof of our mental life, and
they also affect metabolisms, that is to say, nutritive changes in
many parts of the body. They may also, as is well known, affect
unconsciously such mechanisms as those of the action of the heart,
the calibre of the blood-vessels and the movements of respiration.
«xvrr. 4
If, however, this plane of activity is raised, as by intermittent
pressure, or by inflammatory action, or by sudden changes of
temperature, as in burning, scalding, &c, such nervous impulses give
rise to pain. Sometimes pain is distinctly located, and in other
cases it may be irradiated in the nerve centres, and referred to areas
of skin or to regions of the body which are not really the seat of
the irritation. Thus irritation of the liver may cause pain in the
shoulder ; disease of the hip-joint often gives rise to pain in the knee ;
and renal colic, due to the passage of a calculus down the ureter,
to severe pain even in the abdominal walls. These are often
termed reflex pains and their interpretation is of great importance
to physicians in the diagnosis of disease. Their frequent occurrence
has also directed attention to the distribution in the skin and
termination in the brain of the sensory nerves. It is also notice-
able that a sensation of pain gives us no information as to its
cause; we simply have an agonizing sensation in a part to which,
hitherto, we probably referred no sensations. The acuteness or
intensity of pain depends partly on the intensity of the irritation,
and partly on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves at
the time.
Pain. — In addition to sensations of touch and of temperature
referred to the skin, there is still a third kind of sensation, unlike
either, namely, pain. This sensation cannot be supposed to be
excited by irritations of the end organs of touch, or of specific
thermal end organs (if there be such), but rather to irritation of
ordinary sensory nerves, and there is every reason to believe that
painful impressions make their way to the brain along special tracks
in the spinal cord. If we consider our mental condition as regards
sensation at any moment, we notice numerous sensations more or
less definite, not referred directly to the surface, nor to external
objects, such as a feeling of general comfort, free or impeded breath-
ing, hunger, thirst, malaise, horror, fatigue and pain. These are
all caused by the irritation of ordinary sensory nerves in different
localities, and if the irritation of such nerves, by chemical, thermal,
mechanical or nutritional stimuli, passes beyond a certain maximum
point of intensity the result is pain. Irritation of a nerve, in accord-
ance with the law of " peripheral reference of sensation," will cause
pain. Sometimes the irritation applied to the trunk of a sensory
nerve may be so intense as to destroy its normal function, and loss
of sensation or anaesthesia results. If then the stimulus be increased
further, pain is excited which is referred to the end of the nerve, with
the result of producing what has been called anaesthesia dolorosa.
Pains frequently cannot be distinctly located, probably owing to
the fact of irradiation in the nerve centres and subsequent reference
to areas of the body which are not really the seat of irritations.
The intensity of pain depends on the degree of excitability of the
sensory nerves, whilst its massiveness depends on the number of
nerve fibres affected. The quality of the pain is probably produced
by the kind of irritation of the nerve, as affected by the structure
of the part and the greater or less continuance of severe pressure.
Thus there are piercing, cutting, boring, burning, throbbing, pressing,
gnawing, dull and acute varieties of pain. Sometimes the excitability
of the cutaneous nerves is so great that a breath of air or a delicate
touch may give rise to suffering. This hyperalgia is found in
inflammatory affections of the skin. In neuralgia the pain is charac-
terized by its character of shooting along the course of the nerve
and by severe exacerbations. In many nervous diseases there
are disordered sensations referred to the skin, such as alterna-
tions of heat and cold, burning, creeping, itching and a feeling as
if insects were crawling on the surface (formication) . This con-
dition is termed paralgia. The term hypalgia is applied to a
diminution and analgia to paralysis of pain, as is produced by
anaesthetics.
Muscular Sense. — The sensory impressions considered in this
article are closely related to the so-called muscular sense, or that
sense or feeling by which we are aware of the state of the muscles of
a limb as regards contraction or relaxation. Some have held that
the muscular sense is really due to greater or less stretching of the
skin and therefore to irritation of the nerves of that organ. That
this is not the case is evident from the fact that disordered move-
ments indicating perversion or loss of this sense are not affected by
removal of the skin (Claude Bernard). Further, cases in the human
being have been noticed where there was an entire loss of cutaneous
sensibility whilst the muscular sense was unimpaired. It is also
known that muscles possess sensory nerves, giving rise, in certain
circumstances, to fatigue, and, when strongly irritated, to the pain
of cramp. Muscular sensations are really excited by irritation of
sensory nerves passing from the muscles themselves. There are
specialized spindle-like bodies in many muscles, and there are organs
connected with tendons which are regarded as sensory organs by
which pressures are communicated to sensory nerve-filaments.
We are thus made conscious of whether or not the muscles are
contracted, and of the amount of contraction necessary to overcome
resistance, and this knowledge enables us to judge of the amount
of voluntary impulse. Loss or diminution of the muscular sense
is seen in chorea and especially in locomotor ataxy. Increase of
it is rare, but it is seen in the curious affection called anxietas
tibiarum, a painful condition of unrest, which leads to a continual
change in the position of the limbs (see Equilibrium).
(J. G. M.)
11
.8
TOUL— TOULON
TOUL, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m.
W. of Nancy on the Eastern railway Pop. (1906), town 9523;
commune, 13,663. Toul is situated in a plain on the left bank
of the Moselle, which skirts the town on the S. and S. E., while
on the N. it is bordered by the Marne-Rhine canal. It is princi-
pally important as being the centre of a great entrenched camp
close to the German frontier. Immediately after the Franco-
German War the whole system of frontier defence was revised,
and of all the new fortresses of the Meuse and Moselle Toul is
perhaps the most formidable. The works were begun in 1874
by the construction of four outlying forts north, north-east
and south of the town, but these soon became merely
an inner line of defence. The principal defences now lie
much farther out on all sides. The west front of the
new line of forts occupies a long line of high ground (the
watershed of the Meuse and the Moselle), the north front,
about 4 m. from Toul, is in undulating country, while facing
towards Nancy and forming the chord of the arc which
the Moselle describes from Fontenay below to Villey-le-Sec
above, is the strong east front, the outlying works of which
extend far to the east (Fort Frouard and other works
about Nancy) and to the south-east (Pont St Vincent).
The south front extends from the Moselle at Villey-le-
Sec south-westwards till it meets the southern end of the
west front on the high ground overlooking the Meuse
valley. The fort at Pagny on the Meuse to the south-west
may be considered an outwork of this line of defence. The
perimeter of the Toul defences proper is nearly 30 m., and
their mean distance from the town about 6 m. Northward,
along the Meuse, Toul is connected with the fortress of Verdun
by the " Meuse line " of barrier forts, the best known of which
are Gironville, Liouville and Troyon. South of Toul the country
was purposely left unfortified as far as Epinal (q.v.) and this
region is known as the Trouee d'Epinal.
The town itself forms an oval within a bastioned enceinte
pierced by three gateways. It has two important churches.
That of St Etienne (formerly a cathedral) has a choir and
transept of the 13th century; the nave and aisles are of the 14th,
and the facade, the finest part of the building, of the last half of
the 15th. The two western towers, which have no spires, reach
a height of 246 ft. The two large lateral chapels of the nave are
in the Renaissance style. The chief features of the interior
are its stained glass and organ loft. South of the church there
is a fine cloister of the end of the 13th century which was
much damaged at the Revolution. The church of St
Gengoult, which dates chiefly from the late 13th or early 14th
century, has a facade of the 15th century and a cloister in the
Flamboyant Gothic style of the 16th century. The hotel-
de-ville occupies a building of the 18th century, once the epis-
copal palace, and contains the library and museum. Toul
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of commerce
and a communal college among its public institutions. The
industries include the manufacture of porcelain; trade is in
wine and brandy.
Toul {Tullum) is one of the oldest towns of France; originally
capital of the Leuci, in the Belgic Confederation, it acquired
great importance under the Romans. It was evangelized by
St Mansuy in the latter half of the 4th century, and became
one of the leading sees of north-east Gaul. After being sacked
successively by Goths, Burgundians, Vandals and Huns, Toul
was conquered by the Franks in 450. Under the Merovingians
it was governed by counts, assisted by elective officers. The
bishops became sovereign counts in the 10th century, holding
only of the emperor, and for a period of 300 years (13th to 16th
centuries) the citizens maintained a long struggle against
them. Together with Verdun and Metz the town and its
domain formed the territory of the Trois-Eveches. Toul was
forced to yield for a time to the count of Vaudemont in the 12th
century, and twice to the duke of Lorraine in the 15th, and was
thrice devastated by the plague in the 16th century. Charles V.
made a solemn entry into the town in 1544, but in the following
year, at the instance of the cardinal of Lorraine, it placed
itself under the perpetual protection of the kings of France.
Henry II. took possession of the Trois-Eveches in 1552, but the
territory was not officially incorporated with France till 1648.
Henry IV. was received in state in 1603, and in 1637 the
parlement of Metz was transferred to Toul. In 1700 Vauban
reconstructed the fortifications of the town. In. 1790 the
bishopric was suppressed and the diocese united to that of
Nancy. Toul, which had then no modern defences, capitulated
in 1870 after a bombardment of twelve days.
TOULON, a seaport and first-class fortress and naval station
of France, department of Var, capital of the arrondissement
of Toulon, on the Mediterranean, 42 m. E.S.E. of Marseilles.
Pop. (1886), 53,941; (1901), 101,602. The bay, which
opens to the east, has two divisions, the Grande Rade
and the Petite Rade; it is sheltered on the north and
west by high hills, closed on the south by the peninsula of
capes Side and Cepet, and protected on the east by a huge
breakwater, the entrance, 1300 ft. wide, being defensible b>
torpedoes. A ship coming from the open sea must first
pass the forts of St Marguerite, of Cap Brun, of Lamalgue
and of St Louis to the north, and the battery of the signal
station to the south; before reaching the Petite Rade it must
further pass under the guns of the battery of Le Salut to the
east, and of the forts of Balaguier and L'Aiguillette to the west.
The Bay of La Seyne lies west of the Petite Rade, and is
defended by the forts of Six-Fours, Napoleon (formerly Furt
Caire), and Malbousquet, and ths batteries of Les Arenes and
Les Gaus. To the north of Toulon rise the defensive works
of Mont Faron and Fort Rouge, to the east the forts of Artigues
and St Catherine, to the north-east the formidable fort of
Coudon, and to the south-east that of Colle Noire, respectively
dominating the highway into Italy and the valley of Hyeres
with the Bay of Carqueiranne. The town, enlarged to the
north under the Second Empire, has on that side a fine modern
quarter; but in the old town the streets are for the most part
narrow, crooked and dirty, and to their insanitary state the
cholera epidemic of 1884 was attributed. The chief buildings
are the former cathedral of St Marie Majeure (from the 5th
century Toulon was a bishop's see till 1801, when it was annexed
to that of Frejus), the church of St Louis, the naval and military
hospital, with a natural history collection and an anatomical
museum attached, a naval school of medicine, a school of
hydrography, and large barracks. In 1883-1887 a handsome
Renaissance building was erected to accommodate the picture
gallery and the town librarv. The monument in com-
memoration of the centenary of the French Revolution was
erected in 1890 in the Place de la Liberte, the finest in the
new town. The imports are wine, corn, wood, coal, hemp, iron,
sugar, coffee and fresh fish; the exports are salt, copper ore,
barks for tanning and oils. The principal industries, apart
from the arsenal, are shipbuilding, fishing, lace-making and
wine-growing. Toulon possesses an observatory and a
botanical garden. The interesting buildings and gardens of
the hospital of St Mandrier stand on the peninsula of Cape
Cepet, and near them is the lazaretto.
Toulon is the most important of the French dockyards, and is
the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. The arsenal, which
was created by Louis XIV. — Vauban being the engineer of the
works — lies on the north side of the Petite Rade. This is ap-
proached from the Grande Rade by passages at the north and
south ends of a long breakwater which extends from the direction
of Le Mourillon towards the C6pet Peninsula. The water space
within the moles amounts to about 150 acres, while the quays
approach 4 m. in length. Outside in the Petite Rade is a splendid
protected anchorage for a great fleet, the whole being commanded
by many forts and batteries. There are four great basins ap-
proached from the Petite Rade — the Vielle Darse, to the east,
on the side of Le Mourillon ; the Darse Vauban, next tc it; and the
Darse de Castigneau and the Darse Missiessy, farther to the v/est.
In the Darse Vauban are three dry docks, two of them 246 ft. long,
with a depth of water on the sill of about 20 ft. ; while the third
is 283 ft. long, with a depth of over 24 ft. Three other dry docks are
in the Darse de Castigneau, of which one is in two sections. The
largest of the docks is 385 ft. long, and the depth of water on the
sill in all these docks averages 30 ft. In the Darse Missiessy are
TOULOUSE, COUNT OF— TOULOUSE
two dry docks, 426 ft. long, with a depth on the sill of over 32 ft.
There are several building slips, and the yard is supplied with
a gun foundry and wharf, fitting-shops, boiler works, victualling
and other establishments, rolling mills and magazines. Le Mourillon
is a subsidiary yard at Toulon, devoted chiefly to ship-building,
and possessing large facilities, including five covered slips.
The Roman Telo Martius is supposed to have stood near
the lazaretto. The town was successively sacked by
Goths, Burgundians, Franks and Saracens. During the
early middle ages, and till conquered by Charles of Anjou
in 1259, it was under lords of its own, and entered into alli-
ance with the republics of Marseilles and Aries. St Louis,
and especially Louis XII. and Francis I. strengthened
its fortifications. It was seized by the emperor Charles V.
in 1524 and 1536- Henry IV. founded a naval arsenal at
Toulon, which was further strengthened by Richelieu, and
Vauban made the new dock, a new enceinte, and several
forts and batteries. In 1707 the town was unsuccessfully
besieged by the duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene and an English
fleet. In 1720 there was an outbreak of the plague. In 1792
after great and sanguinary disorder, the royalists of the town
sought the support of the English and Spanish fleets cruising
in the neighbourhood. The Convention having replied by
putting the town " hors la loi," the inhabitants opened their
harbour to the English. The army of the republic now (1793)
laid siege to the town, and on this occasion Napoleon Bonaparte
first made his name as a soldier. The forts commanding the
town having been taken, the English ships retired after setting
fire to the arsenal. The conflagration was extinguished by
the prisoners, but not before 38 out of a total of 56 vessels had
been destroyed. Under the Directory Toulon became the
most important French military fort on the Mediterranean;
here Napoleon organized the Egyptian campaign, and the
expedition against Algiers set out from Toulon in 1830. The
fortifications have been strengthened by Napoleon I., Louis
Philippe, Napoleon III., and since 1870.
Battle of Toulon. — This naval battle took place on the nth of
February 1744, near the port of Toulon. A British fleet of thirty
sail of the line under command of Thomas Mathews, who combined
the offices of naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and
envoy to the courts of Sardinia and the Italian princes, engaged
a combined force of Spaniards under Don Jose Navarro and French
under M. de Court. They were in all twenty-seven sail. The allies
left Toulon on the 9th of February. Mathews was at anchor in
Hyeres Bay to watch them, for though France and Great Britain
were already engaged as allies on opposite sides in the War of the
Austrian Succession, there had been no declaration of war between
them. It was known that the allies meant to transfer Spanish
troops to Italy to serve against the Austrians, and Mathews had no
hesitation in attacking them, Great Britain being at war with
Spain. He left Hyeres in very light wind with a heavy westerly
swell, and with his fleet in confusion. The British ships were strag-
gling over a distance of ten miles, but he put himself between the
enemy and Toulon. Mathews was on bad terms with his second
in command, Lestock, who commanded the rear division and showed
little disposition to support his superior. By the morning of the
I Ith the interval between the van and centre of the British fleet
and its rear had increased in the light breezes, and also through
the voluntary or involuntary misapprehension of Mathews's orders
by Lestock. The allies were in a fairly well-formed line, heading
to the south, and southward of the British. Mathews pursued,
and at 1.30 p.m., when his leading ship was abreast of the centre
ship of the allies, he attacked. Some hot fighting took place
between Mathews and the Spaniards who formed the allied rear.
The action was notable as the last occasion on which an attempt
was made to use a fireship on the open sea. One was sent against
the " Real " (114), the Spanish flagship, but she was reduced to a
sinking state by the fire of the Spaniards, and blew up prematurely,
with the loss of all on board. At about five o'clock, the French
in the van turned back to support the Spaniards, and Mathews drew
off. One Spanish ship, the " Poder " (60), which had surrendered
was recaptured, and then set on fire by the allies. Mathews made
only a feeble attempt to renew the battle on the following days,
and on the 13th returned towards the coast of Italy, which he said
he had to defend. The British rear division had not come into
action at all.
The battle, though a miserable affair in itself, is of great impor-
tance in naval history because of the pronouncement of doctrine
to which it led. Mathews, who was dissatisfied with his subordinate,
Lestock. suspended him from command and sent him home for
trial. Several of the captains had behaved ill, and the failure of
99
a superior British fleet to gain a success over the allies caused
extreme discontent at home. A parliamentary inquiry was opened
on the 12th of March 1745, which on the 18th of April, after a
confused investigation, ended in a petition to the king to order
trials by court-martial of all the officers accused of misconduct.
A long series of courts-martial began on the nth of September
1745, and did not end till the 22nd of October 1746. Several
captains were sentenced to be dismissed the service. Lestock was
acquitted, but Mathews was condemned and sentenced to dis-
missal. The finding of the court, which blamed the officer who
actually fought, and acquitted the other who did not, puzzled and
angered public opinion. The technical points were not appreci-
ated by laymen. The real evil done by the condemnation of
Mathews was not understood even in the navy. Mathews was
blamed on the ground that he had not waited to engage till his
van ship was abreast of the van ship of the enemy. By this declara-
tion of principle the court confirmed the formal system of naval
tactics which rendered all sea-fighting between equal or nearly
equal forces so ineffective for two generations.
See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs, i. 197 seq. (London,
1804), a full and fair narrative. (D. H.)
TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, Count or
(1678-1737), third son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan
was born on the 6th of June 1678. At the age of five he was
created admiral of France. He distinguished himself during
the War of the Spanish Succession, and inflicted a severe
defeat on Admiral Rooke near Malaga in 1704. He kept
aloof from the intrigues of his sister-in-law, the duchess of
Maine, and died on the 1st of December 1737. His son, Louis
Jean Marie de Bourbon, due de Penthievre (172 5-1 793) , succeeded
his father in his posts, among others in that of grand admiral.
He served under Marshal de Noailles, and fought brilliantly
at Dettingen (1743) and Fontenoy (1745). He then lived in
retreat at Rambouillet and Sceaux, protecting men of letters,
and particularly the poet Florian, and dispensing charity.
He lost his son, the prince of Lamballe, in 1768, and survived
his daughter-in-law, Louise Marie Therese of Savoy-Carignan,
the friend of Marie Antoinette, who was killed by the populace
on the 3rd of September 1792. He died on the 4th of March
1793; his daughter and heiress, Louise Marie Adelaide, married
Philippe (Egalite), duke of Orleans.
TOULOUSE, a city of south-western France, capital of the
department of Haute-Garonne, 443 m. S. by W. of Paris by
the Orleans railway, and 159 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the
Southern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 125,856; commune,
149,438. Toulouse is situated on the right bank of the Garonne,
which here changes a north-easterly for a north-westerly
direction, describing a curve round which the city extends in the
form of a crescent. On the left bank is the suburb of St Cyprien,
which is exposed to the inundations of the river owing to its
low situation. The river is spanned by three bridges — that
of St Pierre to the north, that of St Michel to the south, and
the Pont Neuf in the centre; the last, a fine structure of seven
arches was begun in 1543 by Nicolas Bachelier, the sculptor,
whose work is to be seen in many of the churches and mansions
of the city. East and north of the city runs the Canal du
Midi, which here joins the lateral canal of the Garonne. Between
the Canal du Midi and the city proper extends a long line of
boulevards leading southwards by the Allee St Etienne to the
Grand Rond, a promenade whence a series of allees branch out
in all directions. South-west the Allee St Michel leads towards
the Garonne, and south the Grande Allee towards the Faubourg
St Michel. These boulevards take the place of the old city
walls. Between them and the canal lie the more modern
faubourgs of St Pierre, Arnaud-Bernard, Matabiau, &c. The
Place du Capitole, to which streets converge from every side,
occupies the centre of the city. Two broad straight thorough-
fares of modern construction, the Rue de Metz and the Rue
d'Alsace-Lorraine, intersect one another to the south of this
point, the first running east from the Pont Neuf, the other
running north and south. The other streets are for the most
part narrow and irregular.
The most interesting building in Toulouse is the church of St
Sernin or Saturnin, whom legend represents as the first preacher
of the gospel in Toulouse, where he was perhaps martyred about
the middle of the 3rd century. The choir, the oldest part of the
IOO
TOULOUSE
present building, was consecrated by Urban II. in 1096. The
church is the largest Romanesque basilica in existence, being
375 ft. from east to west and 210 ft. in extreme breadth. The nave
(12th and 13th centuries) has double aisles. Four pillars, support-
ing the central tower, are surrounded by heavy masonry, which
somewhat spoils the general harmony of the interior. In the
southern transept is the " portail des comtes," so named because
near it lie the tombs of William Taillefer, Pons, and other early
counts of Toulouse. The little chapel in which these tombs (as-
cribed to the nth century) are found was restored by the capitols
of Toulouse in 1648. Another chapel contains a Byzantine Christ
of late nth-century workmanship. The choir (nth and 12th
centuries) ends in an apse, or rather chevet, surrounded by a range
of columns, marking off an aisle, which in its turn opens into five
chapels. The stalls are of 16th-century work and grotesquely
carved. Against the northern wall is an ancient table d'autel,
which an nth-century inscription declares to have belonged to
St Sernin. In the crypts are many relics, which, however, were
robbed of their gold and silver shrines during the Revolution.
On the south there is a fine outer porch in the Renaissance style;
it is surmounted by a representation of the Ascension in Byzantine
style. The central tower (13th century) consists of five storeys,
of which the two highest are of later date, but harmonize with the
three lower ones. A restoration of St Sernin was carried out in
the 19th century by Viollet-le-Duc.
The cathedral, dedicated to St Stephen, dates from three different
epochs. The walls of the nave belong to a, Romanesque cathedral
of the nth century, but its roof dates from the first half of the
13th century. The choir was begun by Bishop Bertrand de 1' lie
(c. 1272), who wished to build another church in place of the old
one. This wish was unfulfilled and the original nave, the axis of
which is to the south of that of the choir, remains. The choir was
burned in 1690 but restored soon after. It is surrounded by seven-
teen chapels, finished by the cardinal d'Orleans, nephew of Louis XL,
about the beginning of the 16th century, and adorned with glass
dating from the 15th to the 17th century. The western gate,
flanked by a huge square tower, was constructed by Peter du
Moulin, archbishop of Toulouse, from 1439 to 1451. It has been
greatly battered, and presents but a poor approximation to its
ancient beauty. Over this gate, which was once ornamented with
the statues of St Sernin, St Exuperius and the twelve apostles,
as well as those of the two brother archbishops of Toulouse, Denis
(1 423-1 439) and Peter du Moulin, there is a beautiful 13th-century
rose-window, whose centre, however, is not in a perpendicular
line with the point of the Gothic arch below.
Among other remarkable churches may be noticed Notre-Dame
de la Daurade, near the Pont Neuf, built on the site of a gth-century
Benedictine abbey and reconstructed towards the end of the 18th
century; and Notre-Dame de la Dalbade; perhaps existing in the
nth, but in its present form dating from the 16th century, with
a fine Renaissance portal. The church of the Jacobins, held by
Viollet-le-Duc to be " one of the most beautiful brick churches
constructed in the middle ages," was built towards the end of
the 13th century, and consists of a nave divided into two aisles
by a range of columns. The chief exterior feature is a beautiful
octagonal belfry. The church belonged to a Dominican monastery,
of which part of the cloister, the refectory, the chapter-hall and the
chapel also remain and are utilized by the lycee. Of the other
secular buildings the most noteworthy are the capitole and the
museum. The capitole has a long Ionic facade built from 1750
to 1760. The theatre is situated in the left wing. Running along
almost the whole length of the first floor is the salle des illustres
adorned with modern paintings and sculptures relating to the history
of the town. The museum (opened in 1795) occupies, besides a
large modern building, the church, cloisters and other buildings
of an old Augustinian convent. It contains pictures and a splendid
collection of antiquities, notably a series of statues and busts of
Roman emperors and others and much Romanesque sculpture.
There is an auxiliary museum in the old college of St Raymond.
The natural history museum is in the Jardin des Plantes. The
law courts stand on the site of the old Chateau Narbonais, once
the residence of the counts of Toulouse and later the seat of the
parlement of Toulouse. Near by is a statue of the jurist Jacques
Cujas, born at Toulouse.
Tctilouse is singularly rich in mansions of the 16th and 17th
centuries. Among these may be mentioned the Hotel Bernuy,
a fine Renaissance building now used by the lycee and the H6tel
d'Assezat of the same period, now the property of the Academie
des Jeux Floraux (see below), and of the learned societies of the city.
In the court of the. latter there is a statue of Clemence Isaure, a
lady of Toulouse, traditionally supposed to have enriched the
Academie by a bequest in the 15th century. The Maison de Pierre
has an elaborate stone facade of 1612.
Toulouse is the seat of an archbishopric, of a court of appeal,
a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is also the headquarters
of the XVII. army corps and centre of an educational circum-
scription {academie). There are tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce
and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions
include faculties of law, medicine and pharmacy, science and
letters, a Catholic institute with faculties of thecyfc 6 y and letters,
higher and lower ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees and training colleges
for both sexes, and schools of veterinary science, fine arts and
industrial sciences and music.
Toulouse, the principal commercial and industrial centre of
Languedoc, has important markets for horses, wine, grain, flowers,
leather, oil and farm produce. Its pastry and other delicacies
are highly esteemed. Its industrial establishments include the
national tobacco factory, flour-mills, saw-mills, engineering work-
shops and factories for farming implements, bicycles, vehicles,
artificial manures, paper, boots and shoes, and flour pastes.
Tolosa, chief town of the Volcae Tectosages, does not
seem to have been a place of great importance during the early
centuries of the Roman rule in Gaul, though in 106 b.c. the
pillage of its temple by Q. S. Cepio, afterwards routed by the
Cimbri, gave rise to the famous Latin proverb habet aurum
Tolosanum, in allusion" to ill-gotten gains. It possessed a
circus and an amphitheatre, but its most remarkable remains
are to be found on the heights of Old Toulouse (velus Tolosa)
some 6 or 7 m. to the east, where huge accumulations of
broken pottery and fragments of an old earthen vail mark
the site of an ancient settlement. The numerous coins that
have been discovered on the same spot do not date back farther
than the 2nd century b.c, and seem to indicate the position
of a Roman manufacturing centre then beginning to occupy
the Gallic hill-fortress that, in earlier days, had in times of
peril been the stronghold of the native tribes dwelling on the
river bank. Tolosa does not seem to have been a Roman
colony; but its importance must have increased greatly towards
the middle of the 4th century. It is to be found entered in
more than one itinerary dating from about this time; and
Ausonius, in his Ordo nobilium urbium, alludes to it in terms
implying that it then had a large population. In 419 it was
made the capital of his kingdom by Wallia, king of the Visigoths,
under whom or whose successors it became the seat of the
great Teutonic kingdom of the West-Goths — a kingdom that
within fifty years had extended itself from the Loire to Gibraltar
and from the Rhone to the Atlantic. On the defeat of Alaric
II. (507) Toulouse fell into the hands of Clovis, who carried
away the royal treasures to Angouleme. Under the Merovingian
kings it seems to have remained the greatest city of southern
Gaul, and is said to have been governed by dukes or counts
dependent on one or other of the rival kings descended from
the great founder of the Frankish monarchy. It figures pro-
minently in the pages of Gregory of Tours and Sidonius
Apollinaris. About 628 Dagobert erected South Aquitaine
into a kingdom for his brother Charibert, who chose Toulouse
as his capital. For the next eighty years its history is obscure,
till we reach the days of Charles Martel, when it was besieged
by Sem'a, the leader of the Saracens from Spain (c. 715-720),
but delivered by Eudes, " princeps Aquitaniae," in whom
later writers discovered the ancestor of all the later counts of
Toulouse. Modern criticism, however, has discredited this
genealogy; and the real history of Toulouse recommences in
780 or 781, when Charlemagne appointed his little son Louis
king of Aquitaine, with Toulouse for his chief city.
During the minority of the young king his tutor Chorson
ruled at Toulouse with the title of duke or count. Being
deposed at the Council of Worms (790), he was succeeded by
William Courtnez, the traditional hero of southern France,
who in 806 retired to his newly founded monastery at Gellone,
where he died in 812. In the unhappy days of the emperor
Louis the Pious and his children Toulouse suffered in common
with the rest of western Europe. It was besieged by Charles
the Bald in 844, and taken four years later by the Normans, who
in 843 had sailed up the Garonne as far as its walls. About 852
Raymond I., count of Quercy, succeeded his brother Fridolo as
count of Rouergue and Toulouse; it is from this noble that all
the later counts of Toulouse trace their descent. Raymond I.'s
grandchildren divided their parents' estates; of these Ray-
mond II. (d. 924) became count of Toulouse, and Ermengaud,
count of Rouergue, while the hereditary titles of Gothia, Quercy
and Albi were shared between them. Raymond II. 's grandson,
William Taillefer (d. c. 1037), married Emma of Provence, and
TOUNGOO— TOUP, J.
IOI
handed down part of that lordship to his younger son Bertrand. 1
William's elder son Pons left two children, of whom William IV.
succeeded his father in Toulouse, Albi, Quercy, &c; while
the younger, Raymond IV. of St Gilles (c. 1066), made him-
self master of the vast possessions of the counts of Rouergue,
married his cousin the heiress of Provence, and about 1085 began
to rule the immense estates of his elder brother, who was still
living.
From this time the counts of Toulouse were the greatest
lords in southern France. Raymond IV., the hero of the first
crusade, assumed the formal titles of marquis of Provence,
duke of Narbonne and count of Toulouse. W T hile Raymond
was away in the Holy Land, Toulouse was seized by William
IX., duke of Aquitaine, who claimed the city in right of his
wife Philippa, the daughter of William IV., but was unable
to hold it long (1008-1100). Raymond's son and successor
Bertrand followed his father's example and set out for the
Holy Land in 1109, leaving his great estates at his death to
his brother Alphonse Jourdain. The rule of this prince was
disturbed by the ambition of William IX. and his grand-daughter
Eleanor, who urged her husband Louis VII. to support her
claims to Toulouse by war. On her divorce from Louis and
her marriage with Henry II., Eleanor's claims passed on to this
monarch, who at last forced Raymond V. to do him homage for
Toulouse in n 73. Raymond V., the patron of the troubadours,
died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son Raymond VI.,
under whose rule Languedoc was desolated by the crusaders of
Simon de Montfort, who occupied Toulouse in 121 5, but lost
his life in besieging it in 1 218. Raymond VII., the son of
Raymond VI. and Princess Joan of England, succeeded his
father in 1222, and died in 1249, leaving an only daughter
Joan, married to Alfonso the brother of Louis IX. On the
death of Alfonso and Joan in 1271 the vast inheritance of the
counts of Toulouse lapsed to the Crown. 2 From the middle
years of the 12 th century the people of Toulouse seem to have
begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal
dues. An act of Alphonse Jourdain (1141) exempts them from
the tax on salt and wine; and in n 52 we have traces of a
" commune consilium Tolosae " making police ordinances in
its own name " with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of
Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence." This
act is witnessed by six " capitularii," four duly appointed
judges (judices constituti) , and two advocates. Twenty-three
years later there are twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the
city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do
justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before
them. In 1222 their number was increased to twenty-four;
but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which
was to remain in the charge of certain " communarii " chosen
by themselves. Early in the 14th century the consuls took
the name of " doinini de capitulo," or, a little later, that of
" capitulum nobilium." From the 13th century the consuls
met in their own house, the " palatium communitatis Tolosae "
or h6tel-de-ville. In the 16th century a false derivation
changed the ancient consuls (domini de capitulo) into the modern
" capitouls " (domini capitolii tolosani), a barbarous etymology
which in its turn has, in the present century, transformed
the old assembly house of Toulouse into the capitole. The
1 About 975 there was a partition of the estates which William
Taillefer and his cousin Raymond II. of Auvergne held in common,
— Albi, Quercy, &c, falling to William, and Gothia, &c, to
Raymond.
2 List of the counts of Toulouse:
Chorson 778-790
William 1 790-806
Raymond Rafinel . c. 812-818
Berenger .... 818-835
Bernard 1 835-844
Warin 844-845
William II 845-850
Fridolo 850-852
Raymond 1 852-864
Bernard 864-875
Eudo 875-918
Raymond II. . . 9i8-c. 924
Raymond III.
William Taillefer 1
Pons ....
William IV. . .
Raymond IV.
Bertrand .
Alphonse Jourdain
Raymond V. .
Raymond VI.
Raymond VII. .
Alfonso and Joan
924-c. 950
950-c. 1037
I 03 7- 1 060
060-c. 1093
1093-1096
109 6-1 109
1109-1148
1148-1194
I 194-1222
1 222-1 249
1249-1271
parlement of Toulouse was established as a permanent court
in 1443. Louis XL transferred it to Montpellier in 1467, but
restored it to Toulouse before the close of the next year. This
parlement was for Languedoc and southern France what the
parlement of Paris was for the north. During the religious
wars of the 16th century the Protestants of the town made
two unsuccessful attempts to hand it over to the prince de
Conde. After St Bartholomew's Day (1572) 300 of the party
were massacred. Towards the end of the 16th century, during
the wars of the League, the parlement was split up into
three different sections, sitting respectively at Carcassonne or
Beziers, at Castle Sarrasin, and at Toulouse. The three were
reunited in 1 596. Under Francis I. it began to persecute heretics,
and in 1619 rendered itself notorious by burning the philosopher
Vanini. In 1762 Jean Calas, an old man falsely accused of
murdering his eldest son to prevent him becoming a Reman
Catholic, was broken on the wheel. By the exertions of Voltaire
his character was afterwards rehabilitated. The university
of Toulouse owes its origin to the action of Gregory IX., who
in 1229 bound Raymond VII. to maintain four masters to
teach theology and eight others for canon law, grammar, and
the liberal arts. Civil law and medicine ■ were taught only a
few years later. The famous " Floral Games " of Toulouse,
in which the poets of Languedoc contended (May 1-3) for the
prize of the golden amaranth and other gold or silver flowers,
given at the expense of the city, were instituted in 1323-1324.
The Academie des Jeux Floraux still awards these prizes for
compositions in poetry and prose. In 1814 the duke of
Wellington defeated Marshal Soult to the north-east of the
town.
See L. Ariste and L. Brand, Histoire populaire de Toulouse depuis
les origines jusqu'a ce jour (Toulouse, 1898). This work contains
an exhaustive bibliography.
TOUNGOO, or Taung-ngu, a town and district in the Tenas-
serim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated on the
right bank of the river Sittang, 166 m. by rail N. from Rangoon.
Pop. (1901), 15,837. From the 14th to the 16th century it was
the capital of an independent kingdom. After the second
Burmese War it was an important frontier station, but the
troops were withdrawn in 1893. The district of Toungoo
has an area of 6172 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 279,315, showing an
increase of 32% in the preceding decade. Three mountain
ranges traverse the district — the Pegu Yomas, the Karen,
and the Nat-taung or " Great Watershed " — all of which have
a north and south direction, and are covered for the most
part with dense forest. The Pegu Yomas have a general
elevation of from 800 to 1200 ft., while the central range averages
from 2000 to 3000 ft. The rest of Toungoo forms the upper
portion of the valley of the Sittang, the only large river in the
district, the chief tributaries of which are the Shwa, Hkabaung,
Hpyu Thank-ye-Kat and Yank-thua-wa, all navigable for a
great portion of their course. Limestone appears in various
places, and in the north-east a light grey marble is quarried for
lime. The rivers form the chief means of communication during
the rainy season. The rainfall in 1905 was 80-30 in. There
are 14 railway stations in the district. Rice is the staple
crop; there are promising plantations of coffee and rubber.
Forests cover more than 5000 sq. m., of which 1337 sq. m.
have been reserved, yielding a large revenue.
TOUP, JONATHAN [Joannes Toupius] (1713-1785), English
classical scholar and critic, was born at St Ives in Cornwall,
and was educated at a private school and Exeter College,
Oxford. Having taken orders, he became rector of St Martin's
Exeter, where he died on the 19th of January 1785. Toup
established his reputation by his Emendationes in Suidam
(1760-1766, followed in 1775 by a supplement) and his edition
of Longinus (1778), including notes and emendations by
Ruhnken. The excellence of Toup's scholarship was " known
to the learned throughout Europe " (so epitaph on the tablet
in the church of East Looe set up by the delegates of the
Clarendon Press), but his overbearing manner and extreme
self-confidence made him many enemies.
102
TOURACOU— TOURAINE
TOURACOU, the name, evidently already in use, under
which in 1743 G. Edwards figured a pretty African bird, 1 and
presumably that applied to it in Guinea, whence it had been
brought alive. It is the Cuculus persa of Linnaeus, and Turacus
(Aft»r Schlegel.)
White-Crested Touracou (Turacus albicristatus) .
or Corythaix persa of later authors. Cuvier in 1799 or 1800
Latinized its native name (adopted in the meanwhile by both
French and German writers) as above, for which barbarous
term J. K. W. Illiger, in 181 1, substituted a more classical
word. In 1788 Isert described and figured (Beobacht. Gesellsch.
naturf. Freunde, iii. 16-20, pi. 1) a bird, also from Guinea,
which he called Musophaga violacca. Its affinity to the original
Touracou was soon recognized, and both forms have been
joined by modern systematists in the family Musophagidae,
commonly Englished Plantain-eaters or Touracous.
To take first the Plantain-eaters proper, or the genus Musophaga,
of which only two species are known. One, about the size of a
crow, is comparatively common in museums, and has the horny
base of its yellow bill prolonged backwards over the forehead in
a kind of shield. The top of the head and the primaries, except
their outer edge and tip, are deep crimson; a white streak extends
behind the eye; and the rest of the plumage is glossy purple. The
second species, M. rossae, which is rare, chiefly differs by wanting
the white eye-streak. Then of the Touracous — the species origin-
ally described is about the size of a jay, and has the head, crest
(which is vertically compressed and tipped with red), neck and breast
of grass-green, varied by two white streaks — one, from the gape
to the upper part of the crimson orbit, separated by a black patch
from the other, which runs beneath and behind the eye. The
wing-coverts, lower part of the back, and tail are of steel-purple,
the primaries deep crimson, edged and tipped with bluish black.
Over a dozen other congeneric species, more or less resembling
this, have been described, and all inhabit some district of Africa.
One, found in the Cape Colony and Natal, where it is known as
the " Lory " (cf. xV. 7, note 1), though figured by Daubenton and
others, was first differentiated in 1841 by Strickland (Ann. Nat.
History, vii. 33) as Turacus albicristatus — its crest having a con-
spicuous white border, while the steel-purple of T. persa is replaced
by a rich and glossy bluish green of no less beauty. In nearly all
the species of this genus the nostrils are almost completely hidden
by the frontal feathers; but there are two others in which, though
closely allied, this is not the case, and some systematists would
place them in a separate genus Gallirex; while another species,
the giant of the family, has been moved into a third genus as Cory-
thaeola cristata. This differs from any of the foregoing by the
absence of the crimson coloration of the primaries, and seems to
lead to another group, Sckizorrhis, in which the plumage is of a
still plainer type, anil, moreover, the nostrils here are not only
exposed but in the form of a slit, instead of being oval as in all the
1 Apparently the first ornithologist to make the bird known was
Albin, who figured it in 1738 from the life, yet badly, as " The
Crown-bird of Mexico." He had doubtless been misinformed as
to its proper country; but Touracous were called " Crown-birds "
by the Europeans in West Africa, as witness Bosnian's Description
of the Coast of Guinea (2nd ed., 1721), p. 251, and W. Smith's Voyage
to Guinea (1745), p. 149, though the name was also given to the
crowned cranes, Balearica.
rest. This genus contains about half-a-dozen species, one of which,
S. concolor, is the Grey Touracou of the colonists in Natal, and is
of an almost uniform slaty brown. A good deal has been written
about these birds, which form the subject of a beautiful monograph
— De Toerako's afgebeld en beschreven — by Schlegel and Westerman,
brcTught out at Amsterdam in i860; while further information is
contained in an elaborate essay by Schalow (Journ. f. ornithologie,
1886, pp. 1-77). Still, much remains to be made known as to their
distribution throughout Africa and their habits. They seem to
be all fruit-eaters, and to frequent the highest trees, seldom coming
to the ground. Very little can be confidently asserted as to their
nidification, but at least one species of Schizorrhis is said to make
a rough nest and therein lay three eggs of a pale blue colour. An
extraordinary peculiarity attends the crimson coloration which
adorns the primaries of so many of the Musophagidae. So long
ago as 1 8 18, Jules Verreaux observed (Proc. Zool. Society, 1 871,
p. 40) that in the case of T. albicristatus this beautiful hue vanishes
on exposure to heavy rain and reappears only after some interval
of time and when the feathers are dry. 2
The Musophagidae form a distinct family, of which the Cuculidae
are the nearest allies, the two being associated to torm the Cuculine
as compared with the Psittacine division of Cuculiform birds
(see Bird and Parrot). T. C. Eyton pointed out (Ann. Nat.
History, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 458) a feature possessed in common by
the latter and the Musophagidae, in the " process attached to the
anterior edge of the ischium," which he likened to the so-called
" marsupial " bones of Didelphian mammals. J. T. Reinhardt
has also noticed (Vidensk. meddels. naturhist. forening, 1871,
pp. 326-341) another Cuculine character offered by the os uncina-
tum affixed to the lower side of the ethmoid in the Plantain-eaters
and Touracous; but too much dependence must not be placed on
that, since a similar structure is presented by the frigate-bird (q.v.)
and the petrels (q.v.). A corresponding process seems also to be
found in Trogon (q.v.). The bill of nearly all the species of Muso-
phagidae is curiously serrated or denticulated along the margin
and the feet have the outer toe reversible, but usually directed
backwards. No member of the family is found outside of the
continental portion of the Ethiopian region. (A. N.)
TOURAINE, an old province in France, which stretched
along both banks of the Loire in the neighbourhood of Tours,
the river dividing it into Upper and Lower Touraine. It
was bounded on the N. by Orleanais, W. by Anjou and
Maine, S. by Poitou and E. by Berry, and it corresponded
approximately to the modern department of Indre et Loire.
Touraine took its name from the Turones, the tribe by which it
was inhabited at the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. They
were unwarlike, and offered practically no resistance to the
invader, though they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix
in a.d. 52. The capital city, Caesarodunum, which was built
on the site of the eastern part of the present city of Tours,
was made by Valentinian the metropolis of the 3rd Lyon-
naise, which included roughly the later provinces of Touraine,
Brittany, Maine and Anjou. Christianity seems to have been
introduced into Touraine not much earlier than the beginning
of the 4th century, although tradition assigns St Gatien, the
first bishop of Tours, to the 3rd. The most famous 01 its
apostles was St Martin (jl. 375-400), who founded the
abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours, and whose tomb in the
city became a celebrated shrine. Tours was besieged by the
Visigoths in 428, and though it offered a successful resistance
on this occasion it was included fifty years later in the territory
of the Visigoths. The Tourangeans refused to adopt the
Arian heresy of their conquerors, and this difference in religion
materially assisted in 507 the conquest of the province by
Clovis, whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by the miraculous
intervention of St Martin. St Clotilda, wife of Clovis, spent
the last years of her life in retreat at Tours. The possession
of Touraine was constantly the subject of dispute between
the Merovingian princes, and the province enjoyed no settled
peace until the reign of Charlemagne. He established Alcuin
as abbot of St Martin of Tours, and under his auspices the
school of Tours became one of the chief seats of learning in
2 The fact of this colouring matter being soluble in water was
incidentally mentioned at a meeting of the Zoological Society of
London by W. B. Tegetmeier, and brought to the notice of Professor
A. H. Church, who, after experiment, published in 1868 (Student
and Intellectual Observer, i. 161-168) an account of it as " Turacin,
a new animal pigment containing copper." Further information
on the subject was given by Monteiro (Chem. News, xxviii. 201 ;
Quart. Journ. Science, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 132). The property is
possessed by the crimson feathers of all the birds of the family.
TOURCOING— TOURMALINE
103
the middle ages. In the 9th century Tours also became the
ecclesiastical metropolis of Brittany, Maine and Anjou, and
when the empire was divided by Louis the Pious into various
districts or missatica, Tours was the centre of one of these,
the boundaries of which corresponded roughly with those of
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the city. Touraine suffered
from the invasions of the Northmen, who massacred the
monks of Marmoutier in 853, but never pillaged Tours. The
administration of Touraine was entrusted, from Merovingian
times onward, to counts appointed by the crown. The office
became hereditary in 940 or 941 with Thibault the Old or the
" Tricheur." His son Odo I. was attacked by Fulk the Black,
count of Anjou, and despoiled of part of his territory. His
grandson Thibault III., who refused homage to Henry I.,
king of France, in 1044, was entirely dispossessed by Geoffrey
of Anjou, called the Hammer (d. 1060). The 7th count,
Fulk (d. 1 109), ruled both Anjou and Touraine, and the county
of Touraine remained under the domination of the counts of
Anjou (q.v.) until Henry II. of England deprived his brother
Geoffrey of Touraine by force of arms. Henry II. carried out
many improvements, but peace was destroyed by the revolt
of his sons. Richard Coeur de Lion, in league with Philip
Augustus, had seized Touraine, and after his death Arthur of
Brittany was recognized as count. In 1204 it was united to
the French crown, and its cession was formally acknowledged
by King John at Chinon in 12 14. Philip appointed Guillaume
des Roches hereditary seneschal in 1204, but the dignity was
ceded to the crown in 13 12. Touraine was granted from time
to time to princes of the blood as an appanage of the crown of
France. In 1328 it was held by Jeanne of Burgundy, queen
of France; by Philip, duke of Orleans, in 1344; and in 1360
it was made a peerage duchy on behalf of Philip the Bold,
afterwards duke of Burgundy. It was the scene of dispute
between Charles, afterwards Charles VII., and his mother,
Isabel of Bavaria, who was helped by the Burgundians. After
his expulsion from Paris by the English Charles spent much
of his time in the chateaux of Touraine, although his seat of
government was at Bourges. He bestowed the duchy successively
on his wife Mary of Anjou, on Archibald Douglas and on Louis
III. of Anjou. It was the dower of Mary Stuart as the widow of
Francis II. The last duke of Touraine was Francis, duke of
Alencon, who died in 1584. Plessis-les-Tours had been the
favourite residence of Louis XL, who granted many privileges
to the town of Tours, and increased its prosperity by the
establishment of the silk-weaving industry. The reformed
religion numbered many adherents in Touraine, who suffered
in the massacres following on the conspiracy of Amboise;
and, though in 1562 the army of Conde pillaged the city of Tours,
the marshal of St Andre reconquered Touraine for the Catholic
party. Many Huguenots emigrated after the massacre of
St Bartholomew, and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
the silk industry, which had been mainly in the hands of the
Huguenots, was almost destroyed. This migration was one
of the prime causes of the extreme poverty of the province
in the next century. At the Revolution the nobles of
Touraine made a declaration expressing their sympathy
with the ideas of liberty and fraternity. Among the many
famous men who were born within its boundaries are Jean
le Meingre Boucicaut, marshal of France, Beroalde de Verville,
author of the Moyen de parvenir, Rabelais, Cardinal Richelieu,
C. J. Avisseau, the potter (1 796-1861), the novelist Balzac
and the poet Alfred de Vigny.
See the quarterly publication of the Memoires of the Societe
archeologique de Touraine (1842, &c.) which include a Dictionnaire
geographique, historique et biographique (6 vols., 1878-1884), by
J. X. Carre de Busserolle. There are histories of Touraine and its
monuments by Chalmel (4 vols. Paris, 1828), by S. Bellanger
(Paris, 1845), by Bourrasse (1858). See also Dupin de Saint Andre\
Hist, du protestantisme en Touraine (Paris, 1885); T. A. Cook,
Old Touraine (2 vols. London, 1892).
TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France
in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian
frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to
Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom
about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is prac-
tically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by
a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public
institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade
arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a condi-
tioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing
ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief
industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool
carried on in some eighty factories employing between
10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting
of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments
produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together
with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy
goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering
materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries
must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery,
of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories
and of soap.
Famed since the 12th century for its woollen manufactures,
Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when Louis XL
of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold
with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and
pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under
Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over
the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument
in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were
reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000.
TOURMALINE, a mineral of much interest to the physicist
on account of its optical and electrical properties; it is
also of some geological importance as a rock-constituent
(see Schorl), whilst certain transparent varieties have economic
value as gem-stones. The name is probably a • corruption
of turmali, or toramalli, the native name applied to tourmaline
and zircon in Ceylon, whence specimens of the former mineral
were brought to Europe by the Dutch in 1703. The green
tourmaline of Brazil had, however, been known here much
earlier; and coarse varieties of the mineral had passed for cen-
turies under the German name of Schorl, an old mining word
of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the old German
Schor (refuse), in allusion to the occurrence of the mineral with
the waste of the tin-mines. The German village of Schorlau
may have taken its name from the mineral. It has been
suggested that the Swedish form skorl has possible connexion
with the word skor, brittle.
Tourmaline crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the
hexagonal system. The crystals have generally a prismatic habit, the
prisms being longitudinally striated or even channelled. Trigonal
prisms are characteristic, so that a transverse section becomes
triangular or often nine-sided. By combination of several prisms
the crystals may become sub-cylindrical. The crystals when doubly
terminated are often hemimorphic or present dissimilar forms at
the opposite ends; thus the hexagonal
prisms in fig. 1 are terminated at one end
by rhombohedral faces, 0, P, and at the
other by the basal plane k'. Doubly-
terminated crystals, however, are com-
paratively rare ; the crystals being usually
attached at one end to the matrix. It is
notable that prismatic crystals of tour-
maline have in some cases been curved
and fractured transversely ; the displaced
fragments having been cemented together
by deposition of fresh mineral matter.
Fig. 1.
Tourmaline is not infre-
quently columnar, acicular or fibrous; and the fibres may radiate
from a centre so as to form the so-called " tourmaline suns."
Crystals of tourmaline present no distinct cleavage, but break with
a sub-conchoidal fracture; and whilst the general lustre of the
mineral is vitreous, that of the fractured surface is rather pitchy.
The hardness is slightly above that of quartz (7). The specific
gravity varies according to chemical composition, that of the
colourless varieties being about 3, whilst in schorl it may rise to 3-2.
Tourmaline has a great range of colour, and in many cases the
crystals are curiously parti-coloured. Occasionally, though rarely,
the mineral is colourless, and is then known as achroite, a name
proposed by R. Hermann in 1845, and derived from the Greek
axpoos (uncoloured) . Red tourmaline, which when of fine colour
is the most valued of all varieties, is known as rubellite (q.v.). Green
tourmaline is by no means uncommon, but the blue is rather rare
104
TOURNAI
and is distinguished by the name indigolite, generally written indi-
colite. Brown is a common colour, and black still more common,
this being the usual colour of schorl, or common coarse tourmaline.
Thin splinters of schorl may, however, be blue or brown by
transmitted light.
The double refraction of tourmaline is strong. The mineral is
optically negative, the ordinary index being about 1-64, and the
extraordinary 1-62. Coloured tourmalines are intensely pleochroic,
the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis,
being much more strongly absorbed than the extraordinary; hence
a slice cut in the direction of the principal or optic axis trans-
mits sensibly only the extraordinary ray, and may consequently be
used as a polarizing medium. The brown tourmaline of Ceylon and
Brazil is best adapted for this purpose, but the green is also used.
Two plates properly mounted form the instrument used by opticians
for testing spectacle-lenses, and are known as the " tourmaline tongs."
In order to secure the best colour-effect when used as a gem-stone,
the tourmaline should be cut with the table parallel to the optic
axis.
It was in tourmaline that the phenomenon of pyroelectricity was
first observed. On being heated in peat ashes its attractive power
was observed by the Dutch, in the early part of the 18th century;
and this curious character obtained for it the name of aschtrekker,
or ash-drawer. J. R. Haiiy first pointed out the relation of pyroelec-
tricity with hemimorphism. Tourmaline is also* piezoelectric, that
is, it becomes electric by pressure. If a crystal be subjected to
pressure along the optic axis, it behaves as though it were contracting
by reduction of temperature. The mineral may also be rendered
electric by friction, and retains the charge for a long time.
Tourmaline is a boro-silicate of singularly complex composition.
Indeed the word tourmaline is sometimes regarded as the name of
a group of isomorphous minerals rather than that of a definite
species. Numerous analyses have been made, and the results
discussed by a large number of authorities. In the view of S. L.
Penfield and H. W. Foote all tourmaline may be derived from a
boro-silicic acid of the formula Ha^Gi^i. It is believed that
the hydrogen is present as hydroxyl, and that this may be partially
replaced by fluorine. The tourmaline acid has probably the con-
stitution His(B-OH) 2 Si40i9. Nine atoms of hydrogen are replaced
by three of aluminium, and the remaining nine in part by other
metals. Lithium is present in red tourmaline; magnesium dominates
in brown; iron, manganese and sometimes chromium are found
in green ; and much iron occurs in the black varieties. Four groups
are sometimes recognized, characterized by the presence of (1)
lithium, (2) ferrous iron, (3) ferric iron and (4) magnesium.
Tourmaline occurs commonly in granite, greisen, gneiss and
crystalline schists. In many cases it appears to have been formed
by pneumatolysis, or the action on the rocks of heated vapours
containing boron and fluorine, as in many tin-bearing districts,
where tourmaline is a characteristic mineral. Near the margin
of a mass of granite the rock often becomes schorlaceous or tourma-
liniferous, and may pass into " tourmaline-rock," which is usually
an aggregate of tourmaline and quartz. Tourmaline is an essential
constituent of the west of England rocks called luxullianite (luxul'y-
anite) and trowlesworthite. It occurs embedded in certain meta-
morphic limestones, where it is possibly due to fumarolic action.
Microscopic crystals are common in clay-slate. By resistance to
decomposition, tourmaline often survives the disintegration of the.
matrix, and thus passes into sands, clays, marls and other
sedimentary deposits.
Many of the finest crystals of tourmaline occur in druses in
granitic rocks, such as those of San Piero in Elba, where some of
the pale pink and green prisms are tipped with black, and have
consequently been called " nigger-heads. Lepidolite is a common
associate of tourmaline, as at Rozena in Moravia. Tourmaline
occurs, with corundum, in the dolomite of Campolongo, in canton
Ticino, Switzerland. Fine black crystals, associated with apatite
and quartz, were formerly found in granite at Chudleigh, near
Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The Russian localities for tourmaline
are mentioned under Rubellite. Most of the tourmaline cut for
jewelry comes from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. The green tour-
maline has generally a yellowish or olive-green colour, and is known
as " Ceylon chrysolite." Fine green crystals are found in Brazil,
notably in the topaz-locality of Minas Novas; and when of vivid
colour they have been called " Brazilian emeralds." Green tour-
maline is a favourite ecclesiastical stone in South America Blue
tourmaline occurs with the green ; this variety is found also at Uto
in Sweden (its original locality) and notably near Hazaribagh in
Bengal. Certain kinds of mica occasionally contaia flat crystals
of tourmaline between the cleavage-planes.
Many localities in the United States are famous for tourmaline.
Magnificent specimens have been obtained from Mt Mica, near
Paris, Maine, where the mineral was accidentally discovered in 1820
by two students, E. L. Hamlin and E. Holmes. It occurs in granite,
with lepidolite, smoky quartz, spodumene, &c. ; and some of the
prismatic crystals are notable for being red at one end and
green at the other. Mt Rubellite at Hebron, and Mt Apatite at
Auburn, are other localities in Maine which have yielded fine tour-
maline. At Chesterfield, Massachusetts, remarkable crystals occur,
some of which show on transverse section a triangular nucleus of
red tourmaline surrounded by a shell of green. Red and green
tourmalines, with lepidolite and kunzite, are found in San Diego
county, California. Fine coloured tourmalines occur at Haddam
Neck, Connecticut; and excellent crystals of black tourmaline are
well known from Pierrepont, New York, whilst remarkable brown
crystals occur in limestone at Gouverneur in the same state. Canada
is rich in tourmaline, notably at Burgess in Lanark county, Ontario,
and at Grand Calumet Island in the Ottawa river. . Heemskirk
Mountain, Tasmania, and Kangaroo Island, South Australia, have
yielded fine coloured tourmaline fit for jewelry. Madagascar is
a well-known locality for black tourmaline in large crystals.
Many varieties of tourmaline have received distinctive names,
some of which are noticed above. Dravite is G. Tschermak's name
for a brown tourmaline, rich in magnesia but with little iron, occur-
ring near Unter Drauburg in the Drave district in Carinthia. Taltalite
was a name given by I. Domeyko to a mixture of tourmaline and
copper ore from Taltal in Chile. The colourless Elba tourmaline
was called apvrite by J. F. L. Hausmann, in allusion to its refractory
behaviour before the blow-pipe ; whilst a black iron-tourmaline from
Norway was termed aphrazite by J. B. d'Andrada, in consequence
of its intumescence when heated. (F. W. R. *)
TOURNAI (Flemish Doornik), a city of Belgium, in the
province of Hainaut, situated on the Scheldt. Pop. (igc-4),
36,744. Although in the course of its long history it has
undergone many sieges and was sacked at various epochs by
the Vandals, Normans, French and Spaniards, it preserves
many monuments of its ancient days. Among these is the
cathedral of Notre-Dame, one of the finest and best preserved
Romanesque and Gothic examples in Belgium (for plan, &c,
see Architecture: Romanesque and Gothic in Belgium). Its
foundation dates from the year 1030, while the nave is Roman-
esque of the middle of the 12th century, with much pointed
work. The transept was added in the 13th century. The first
choir was burned down in 12 13, but was rebuilt in 1242 at
the same time as the transept, and is a superb specimen
of pointed Gothic. There are five towers with spires, which
give the outside an impressive appearance, and much has been
done towards removing the squalid buildings that formerly con-
cealed the cathedral. There are several old pictures of merit,
and the shrine of St Eleuthere, the first bishop of Tournai
in the 6th century, is a remarkable product of the silversmith's
art. The belfry on the Grand Place was built in 1187,
partly reconstructed in 1391 and finally restored and endowed
with a steeple in 1852. The best view of the cathedral can
be obtained from its gallery. The church of St Quentin in
the. same square as the belfry is almost as ancient as Notre-
Dame, and the people of Tournai call it the " little cathedral."
In the church of St Brice is the tomb of Childeric discovered
in 1655. Among the relics were three hundred small golden
models of bees. These were removed to Paris, and when
Napoleon was crowned emperor a century and a half later he
chose Childeric's bees for the decoration of his coronation
mantle. In this manner the bee became associated with the
Napoleonic legend just as the lilies were with the Bourbons.
The Pont des Trous over the Scheldt, with towers at each end,
was built in 1290, and among many other interesting buildings
there are some old houses still in occupation which date
back to the 13th century. On the Grand Place is the
fine statue of Christine de Lalaing, princess d'Epinoy, who
defended Tournai against Parma in 1581. Tournai carries
on a large trade in carpets (called Brussels), bonnet shapes,
corsets and fancy goods generally. With regard to the carpet
manufactory, it is said locally to date from the time of the
Crusades, and it is presumed that the Crusaders learnt the
art from the Saracens.
The history of Tournai dates from the time of Julius Caesar,
when it was called civitas Nerviorum or castrum Turnacum. In the
reign of Augustus, Agrippa fixed the newly mixed colony of Suevi
and Menapii at Tournai, which continued throughout the period
of Roman occupation to be of importance. In the 5th century
the Franks seized Tournai, and Merovaeus made it the capital
of his dynasty. This it remained until the subdivision of the
Frank monarchy among the sons of Clovis. When feudal
possessions, instead of being purely personal, were vested in the
families of the holder after the death of Charlemagne, Tournai
was specially assigned to Baldwin of the Iron Arm by Charles
TOURNAMENT
Plate.
KNIGHTS JOUSTING WITH CRONELLS ON THEIR LANCES. French MS. early XIV Century. (Royal MS. 14 E. iii.)
KNIGHTS JOUSTING. From a French MS. of the latter half of the XV Century. (Cotton MS. Nero D. ix.)
ENGLISH KNIGHTS RIDING INTO THE LISTS. From the Great Tournament Roll of 151 1; by permission of the Colleee of Arms.
TOURNAMENT
105
the Bald, whose daughter Judith he had abducted, on receiving
the hereditary title of count of Flanders. During the Bur-
gundian period it was the residence of Margaret of York, widow
of Charles the Bold; and the pretender Perkin Warbeck, whom
she championed, if not born there, was the reputed son of a
Jew of Tournai. In the early 16th century Tournai was an
English possession for a few years and Henry VIII. sold it to
Francis I. It did not long remain French, for in 1521 the
count of Nassau, Charles V.'s general, took it and added it to
the Spanish provinces. During the whole of the middle ages
Tournai was styled the " seigneurie de Tournaisis," and pos-
sessed a charter and special privileges of its own. Near Tournai
was fought, on the nth of May 1745, the famous battle
of Fontenoy. (D. C. B.)
TOURNAMENT, or Tourney (Fr. tournetnent, tournoi, Med.
Lat. torneamentum, from tourner, to turn), the name popularly
given in the middle ages to a species of mock fight, so called
owing to the rapid turning of the horses (Skeat). Of the several
medieval definitions of the tournament given by Du Cange
{Glossarium, s.v. " Tourneamentum "), the best is that of Roger
of Hoveden, who described tournaments as " military exercises
carried out, not in the spirit of hostility inullo interveniente
odio), but solely for practice and the display of prowess (pro solo
exercitio, atque ostenlalione virium)." Men who carry weapons
have in all ages played at the game of war in time of peace.
But the tournament, properly so called, does not appear in
Europe before the nth century, in spite of those elaborate
fictions of Ruexner's Thurnierbuch which detail the tournament
laws of Henry the Fowler. More than one chronicler records
the violent death, in 1066, of a French baron named Geoffroi de
Preulli, who, according to the testimony of his contemporaries,
" invented tournaments." In England, at least, the tourna-
ment was counted a French fashion, Matthew Paris calling it
confiidus gallicus.
By the 12th century the tournament had grown so popular
in England that Henry II. found it necessary to forbid the
sport which gathered in one place so many barons and knights
in arms. In that age we have the famous description by William
FitzStephen of the martial games of the Londoners in Smith-
field. He tells how on Sundays in Lent a noble train of young
men would take the field well mounted, rushing out of the city
with spear and shield to ape the feats of war. Divided into parties,
one body would retreat, while another pursued striving to un-
horse them. The younger lads, he says, bore javelins disarmed
of their steel, by which we may know that the weapon of the
elders was the headed lance. William of Newbury tells us how
the young knights, balked of their favourite sport by the royal
mandate, would pass over sea to win glory in foreign lists.
Richard I. relaxed his father's order, granting licences for
tournaments, and Jocelin of Brakelond has a long story of the
great company of cavaliers who held a tournament between
Thetford and Bury St Edmunds in defiance of the abbot. From
that time onward unlicensed tourneying was treated as an
offence against the Crown, which exacted heavy fees from all
taking part in them even when a licence had been obtained.
Often the licence was withheld, as in 1255, when the king's son's
grave peril in Gascony is alleged as a reason for forbidding a
meeting. In 1299 life and limb were declared to be forfeit in
the case of those who should arrange a tourney without the royal
licence, and offenders were to be seized with horse and harness.
As the tournament became an occasion for pageantry and
feasting, new reason was given for restraint: a simple knight
might beggar himself over a sport which risked costly horses
and carried him far afield. Jousters travelled from land to land,
like modern cricketers on their tours, offering and accepting
challenges. Thus Edward L, before coming to the throne, led
eighty knights to a tournament on the Continent. Before the
jousts at Windsor on St George's Day in 1344 heralds published
in France, Scotland, Burgundy, Hainault, Flanders, Brabant
and the domains of the emperor the king's offer of safe conduct
for competitors. At the weddings of princes and magnates and
at the crowning of kings the knights gathered to the joustings,
which had become as much a part of such high ceremonies
as the banquet and the minstrelsy. The fabled glories of the
Round Table were revived by princely hosts, who would assemble
a gallant company to keep open house and hold the field against
all comers, as did Mortimer, the queen's lover, when, on the eve
of his fall, he brought all the chivalry of the land to the place
where he held his Round Table. About 1292 the " Statute of
Arms for Tournaments " laid down, " at the request of the earls
and barons and of the knighthood of England," new laws for
the game. Swords with points, were not to be used, nor pointed
daggers, nor club nor mace. None was to raise up a fallen
knight but his own appointed squires, clad in his device. The
squire who offended was to lose horse and arms and lie three
years in gaol. A northern football crowd would understand
the rule that forbade those coming to see the tournament to
wear harness or arm themselves with weapons. Disputes were
to be settled by a court of honour of princes and earls. That
such rules were needful had been shown at Rochester in 12 51,
where the foreign knights were beaten by the English and so
roughly handled that they fled to the city for refuge. On their
way the strangers were faced by another company of knights
who handled them roughly and spoiled them, thrashing them
with staves in revenge for the doings at a Brackley tournament.
Even as early as the 13th century some of these tournaments
were mere pageants of horsemen. For the Jousts of Peace held
at Windsor Park in 1278 the sword-blades are of whalebone and
parchment, silvered; the helms are of boiled leather and the
shields of light timber. But the game could make rough sport.
Many a tournament had its tale of killed and wounded in the
chronicle books. We read how Roger of Lemburn struck
Arnold de Montigny dead with a lance thrust under the helm.
The first of the Montagu earls of Salisbury died of hurts taken
at a Windsor jousting, and in those same lists at Windsor the
earl's grandson Sir William Montagu was killed by his own
father. William Longespee in 1256 was so bruised that he never
recovered his strength, and he is among many of whom the like
is written. Blunted or " rebated " lance-points came early
into use, and by the 14th century the coronall or cronell head
was often fitted in place of the point. After 1400 the armourers
began to devise harness with defences specially wrought for ser-
vice in the lists. But the joust lost its chief perils with the
invention of the tilt, which, as its name imports, was at first a
cloth stretched along the length of the lists. The cloth became
a stout barrier of timber, and in the early 16th century the
knight ran his course at little risk. Locked up in steel harness,
reinforced with the grand-guard and the other jousting pieces,
he charged along one side of this barrier, seeing little more through
the pierced sight-holes of the helm than the head and shoulders
of his adversary. His bridle arm was on the tilt-side, and thus
the blunted lance struck at an angle upon the polished plates.
Mishaps might befall. Henry II. of France died from the stroke
of Gabriel de Montgomeri, who failed to cast up in time the
truncheon of his splintered lance. But the 16th-century tourna-
ment was, in the main, a bloodless meeting.
The 15th century had seen the mingling of the tournament
and the pageant. Adventurous knights would travel far afield
in time of peace to gain worship in conflicts that perilled life
and limb, as when the Bastard of Burgundy met the Lord Scales
in 1466 in West Smithfield under the fair and costly galleries
crowded with English dames. On the first day the two ran
courses with sharp spears; on the second day they tourneyed
on horseback, sword in hand; on the third day they met on foot
with heavy pole-axes. But the great tournament held in the
market-place of Bruges, when the jousting of the Knights of the
Fleece was part of the pageant of the Golden Tree, the Giant
and the Dwarf, may stand as a magnificent example of many
such gay gatherings. When Henry VIII. was scattering his
father's treasure the pageant had become an elaborate masque.
For two days after the crowning of the king at Westminster,
Henry and his queen viewed from the galleries of a fantastic
palace set up beside the tilt-yard a play in which deer were pulled
down by greyhounds in a paled park, in which the Lady Diana
io6
TOURNEFORT— TOURNEUR
and the Lady Pallas came forward, embowered in moving castles,
to present the champions. Such costly shows fell out of fashion
after the death of Henry VIII.; and in England the tournament
remained, until the end, a martial sport. Sir Henry Lee rode
as Queen Elizabeth's champion in the tilt-yard of Whitehall
until his years forced him to surrender the gallant office to that
earl of Cumberland who wore the Queen's glove pinned to the
flap of his hat. But in France the tournament lingered on until
it degenerated to the carrousel, which, originally a horseman's
game in which cavaliers pelted each other with balls, became an
unmartial display when the French king and his courtiers
pranced in such array as the wardrobe-master of the court
ballets would devise for the lords of Ind and Africk.
The tournament was, from the first, held to be a sport for men
of noble birth, and on the Continent, where nobility was more
exactly defined than in England, the lists were jealously closed
to all Combatants but those of the privileged class. In the
German lands, questions as to the purity of the strain of a candi-
date for admission to a noble chapter are often settled by appeal
to the fact that this or that ancestor had taken part in a tourna :
ment. Konrad Griinenberg's famous heraldic manuscript
shows us the Helmschau that came before the German tournament
of the 15th century — the squires carrying each his master's
crested helm, and a little scutcheon of arms hanging from it,
to the hall where the king of arms stands among the ladies and,
wand in hand, judges each blazon. In England several of those
few rolls of arms which have come down to us from the middle
ages record the shields displayed at certain tournaments.
Among the illustrations of the article Heraldry will be
seen a leaf of a roll of arms of French and English jousters at
the Field of the Cloth of Gold, and this leaf is remarkable
as illustrating also the system of " checques " for noting the
points scored by the champions. (O.Ba.)
TOURNEFORT, JOSEPH PITTON DE (1656-1708), French
botanist, was born at Aix, in Provence, on the 5th of June 1656.
He studied in the convent of the Jesuits at Aix, and was destined
for the Church, but the death of his father left him free to
follow his botanical inclinations. After two years' collecting,
he studied medicine at Montpellier, but was appointed pro-
fessor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in 1683. By the king's
order he travelled through western Europe, where he made
extensive collections, and subsequently spent three years in
Greece and Asia Minor (1 700-1 702). Of this journey a de-
scription in a series of letters was posthumously published in
3 vols. (Relation d'un voyage du Levant, Lyons, 1717). His
principal work is entitled Institutiones rei herbariae (3 vols.
Paris, 1700), and upon this rests chiefly his claims to remem-
brance as one of the most eminent of the systematic botanists
who prepared the way for Linnaeus. He died on the 28th of
December 1708.
TOURNEUR, CYRIL (c. 1 575-1626), English dramatist, was
perhaps the son of Captain Richard Turner, water-bailiff and
subsequently lieutenant-governor of Brill in the Netherlands.
Cyril Tourneur also served in the Low Countries, for in 1613
there is a record made of payment to him for carrying letters
to Brussels. He enjoyed a pension from the government
of the United Provinces, possibly by way of compensation
for a post held before Brill was handed over to the Dutch
in 1616. In 1625 he was appointed by Sir Edward Cecil, whose
father had been a former governor of Brill, to be secretary
to the council of war. This appointment was cancelled by
Buckingham, but Tourneur sailed in Cecil's company to Cadiz.
On the return voyage from the disastrous expedition he was
put ashore at Kinsale with other sick men, and died in Ireland
on the 28th of February 1626. (M.Br.)
An allegorical poem, worthless as art and incomprehensible
as allegory, is his earliest extant work; an elegy on the death
of Prince Henry, son of James I., is the latest. The two
plays on which his fame rests, and on which it will rest for
ever, were published respectively in 1607 and 1611, but all
students have agreed to accept the internal evidence which
assures us that the later in date of publication must be the
earlier in date of composition. His only other known work
is an epicede on Sir Francis Vere, of no great merit as poetry,
but of some value as conveying in a straightforward and mascu-
line style the poet's ideal conception of a perfect knight or
" happy warrior," comparable by those who may think fit to
compare it with the more nobly realized ideals of Chaucer
and of Wordsworth. But if Tourneur had left on record no
more memorable evidence of his powers than might be supplied
by the survival of his elegies, he could certainly have claimed
no higher place among English writers than is now occupied
by the Rev. Charles Fitzgeoffrey, whose voluminous and fer-
vent elegy on Sir Francis Drake is indeed of more actual value,
historic or poetic, than either or than both of Tourneur's elegiac
rhapsodies. The singular power, the singular originality and
the singular limitation of his genius are all equally obvious
in The Atheist's Tragedy, a dramatic poem no less crude and
puerile and violent in action and evolution than simple and noble
and natural in expression and in style. The executive faculty of
the author is in the metrical parts of his first play so imperfect
as to suggest either incompetence or perversity in the workman;
in The Revenger's Tragedy it is so magnificent, so simple, im-
peccable and sublime that the finest passages of this play
can be compared only with the noblest examples of tragic
dialogue or monologue now extant in English or in Greek.
There is no trace of imitation or derivation from an alien source
in the genius of this poet . The first editor of Webster has observed
how often he imitates Shakespeare; and, in fact, essentially
and radically independent as is Webster's genius also, the
sovereign influence of his master may be traced not only in the
general tone of his style, the general scheme of his composition,
but now and then in a direct and never an unworthy or imper-
fect echo of Shakespeare's very phrase and accent. But the
resemblance between the tragic verse of Tourneur and the
tragic verse of Shakespeare is simply such as proves the natural
affinity between two great dramatic poets, whose inspiration
partakes now and then of the quality more proper to epic
or to lyric poetry. The fiery impulse, the rolling music, the
vivid illustration of thought by jets of insuppressible passion,
the perpetual sustenance of passion by the implacable persist-
ency of thought, which we recognise as the dominant and
distinctive qualities of such poetry as finds vent in the utter-
ances of Hamlet or of Timon, we recognise also in the scarcely
less magnificent poetry, the scarcely less fiery sarcasm, with
which Tourneur has informed the part of Vindice— a harder-
headed Hamlet, a saner and more practically savage and serious
Timon. He was a satirist as passionate as Juvenal or Swift,
but with a finer faith in goodness, a purer hope in its ultimate
security of triumph. This fervent constancy of spirit relieves
the lurid gloom and widens the limited range of a tragic imagina-
tion which otherwise might be felt as oppressive rather than
inspiriting. His grim and trenchant humour is as peculiar in
its sardonic passion as his eloquence is original in the strenuous
music of its cadences, in the roll of its rhythmic thunder.
As a playwright, his method was almost crude and rude in
the headlong straightforwardness of its energetic simplicity;
as an artist in character, his interest was intense but narrow,
his power magnificent but confined; as a dramatic poet, the
force of his genius is great enough to ensure him an enduring
place among the foremost of the followers of Shakespeare.
(A. C. S.)
Bibliography. — The complete list of his extant works runs:
The Atheists Tragedie; or, The Honest Man's Revenge (161 1); A
Funerall Poeme Upon the Death of the Most Worthie and True Soldier,
Sir Francis Vere, Knight . . . (1609); "A Griefe on the Death
of Prince Henrie, Expressed in a Broken Elegie . . .," printed with
two other poems by John Webster and Thomas Haywood as Three
Elegies on the most lamented Death of Prince Henry (1613) ; The
Revengers Tragaedie (1607 and 1608) ; and an obscure satire,
The Transformed Metamorphosis (1600). The only other play of
Tourneur's of which we have any record is The Nobleman, the MS. of
which was destroyed by John Warburton's cook. This was entered
on the Stationers' Register (Feb. 15, 1612) as a " Tragecomedye
called The Nobleman written by Cyrill Tourneur." In 1613 a letter
from Robert Daborne to Henslowe states that he has commissioned
Cyril Tourneur to write one act of the promised Arraignment of
TOURNEUX— TOURS
107
London. " The Character of Robert, earl of Salisburye, Lord
High Treasurer of England . . . written by Mr Sevill Turneur . . .,"
in a MS in possession of Lord Mostyn (Hist. MSS. Commission,
4th Report, appendix, p. 361) may reasonably be assigned to
Tourneur. Although no external evidence is forthcoming, Mr R.
Boyle names Tourneur as the collaborator of Massinger in The Second
Maid's Tragedy (licensed 161 1).
The Revenger's Tragedy was printed in Dodsley's Old Plays (vol. iv.,
1744, 1780 and 1825), and in Ancient British Drama (1810. vol. ii.).
The best edition of Tourneur's works is The Plays and Poems of
Cyril Tsurneur, edited with Critical Introduction and Notes, by J.
Churton Collins (1878). See also the two plays printed with the
masterpieces of Webster, with an introduction by J A. Symonds, in
the" Mermaid Series " (1888 and 1903). No particulars of Tourneur's
life were available until the facts given above were abstracted by
Mr Gordon Goodwin from the Calendar of State Papers (" Domestic
Series," 1628-1629, 1629-1631, 1631-1633) and printed in the
Academy (May 9, 1891). A critical study of the relation of The
Atheist's Tragedy to Hamlet and other revenge-plays is given in
Professor A. H. Thorndike's " Hamlet and Contemporary Revenge
Plays " (Publ. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc, Baltimore, 1902). For the
influence of Marston on Tourneur see E. E. Stoll, John Webster . . .
(1905, Boston, Massachusetts); pp. 105-116. (M.Br.)
TOURNEUX, JEAN MAURICE (1849- ), French man
of letters and bibliographer, son of the artist and author J. F. E.
Tourneux, was born in Paris on the 12th of July 1849.
He began his career as a bibliographer by collaborating in
new editions of the Supercheries litteraires of Joseph Querard
and the Dictionnaire des anonymes of Antoine Barbier. His
most important bibliographical work was the Bibliographie de
I'histoire de Paris pendant la revolution franqaise (3 vols. 1890-
1901), which was crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions.
This valuable work serves as a guide for the history of the
city beyond the limits of the Revolution.
His other works include bibliographies of Prosper Merimee (1876),
of Theophile Gautier (1876), of the brothers deGoncourt (1897) and
others; also editions of F. M. Grimm's Correspondance litteraire,
of Diderot's Neveu de Rameau (1884), of Montesquieu's Lettres
persanes (1886), &c.
TOURNON, a town of south- western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Ardeche, on the right bank
of the Rhone, 58 m. S. of Lyons by rail. Pop. (1906), town,
3642; commune, 5003. Tournon preserves a gateway of the
15th century and other remains of fortifications and an old
castle used as town hall, court-house and prison and con-
taining a Gothic chapel. The church of St Julian dates chiefly
from the 14th century. The lycee occupies an old college
founded in the 16th century by Cardinal Francois de Tournon.
Of the two suspension bridges which unite the town with Tain
on the left bank of the river, one was built in 1825 and is the
oldest in France. A statue to General Rampon (d. 1843)
stands in the Place Carnot. Wood-sawing, silk-spinning, and
the manufacture of chemical manures, silk goods and hosiery
are carried on in the town, which has trade in the wine of
the Rhone hills. Tournon had its own counts as early as
the reign of Louis I. In the middle of the 17th century the title
passed from them to the dukes of Ventadour.
TOURNUS, a town of east-central France, in the depart-
ment of Saone-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Saone, 20 m.
N. by E. of Macon on the Paris-Lyons railway. Pop. (1906),
3787. The church of St Philibert (early nth century) once
belonging to the Benedictine abbey of Tournus, suppressed in
1785, is in the Burgundian Romanesque style. The facade lacks
one of the two flanking towers originally designed for it. The
nave is roofed with barrel vaulting, supported on tall cylin-
drical columns. The choir beneath which is a crypt of the nth
century has a deambulatory and square chapels. In the Place
de l'Hotel de Ville stands a statue of J. B. Greuze, born in the
town in 1725. There are vineyards in the surrounding dis-
trict and the town and its port have considerable commerce in
wine and in stone from the neighbouring quarries. Chair-
making is an important industry.
TOURS, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Indre-et-Loire, 145 m. S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906),
town 61,507; commune, 67,601. Tours lies on the left bank of
the Loire on a flat tongue of land between that river and the
Cher a little above their junction. The right bank of the
Loire is bordered by hills at the foot of which lie the suburbs
of St Cyr and St Symphorien. The river is crossed by two
suspension bridges, partly built on islands in the river, and by
a stone bridge of the second half of the 18th century, the Pont
de Tours. Many foreigners, especially English, live at or visit
Tours, attracted by the town itself, its mild climate and situa-
tion in " the garden of France," and the historic chateaux in
the vicinity. The Boulevard Beranger, with its continuation,
the Boulevard Heurteloup, traverses Tours from west to east
dividing it into two parts; the old town to the north, with its
narrow streets and ancient houses, contains the principal
buildings, the shops and the business houses, while the new
town to the south, centring round a fine public garden, is almost
entirely residential. The Rue Nationale, the widest and hand-
somest street in Tours, is a prolongation of the Pont de Tours
and runs at right angles to the boulevards, continuing under the
name of the Avenue de Grammont until it reaches the Cher.
St Gatien, the cathedral of Tours, though hardly among the
greatest churches of France, is nevertheless of considerable
interest. A cathedral of the first half of the 12th century was
burnt in n 66 during the quarrel between Louis VII. of France
and Henry II. of England. A new cathedral was begun about
1 1 70 but not finished till 1547. The lower portions of the
west towers belong to the 12th century, the choir to the 13th
century; the transept and east bays of the nave to the 14th;
the remaining bays, a cloister on the north, and the facade,
profusely decorated in the Flamboyant style, to the 15th and
1 6th centuries, the upper part of the towers being in the
Renaissance style of the 16th century. In the interior there is
fine stained glass, that of the choir (13th century) being espe-
cially remarkable. The tomb' of the children of Charles VIII.,
constructed in the first years of the 16th century and attributed
to the brothers Juste is also of artistic interest.
An example of Romanesque architecture survives in the great
square tower of the church of St Julien, the rest of which is in the
early Gothic style of the 13th century, with the exception of two
apses added in the 16th century. Two towers and a Renaissance
cloister are the chief remains of the celebrated basilica of St Martin
built mainly during the 12th and 13th centuries and demolished
in 1802. It stood on the site of an earlier and very famous church
built from 466 to 472 by bishop St Perpetuus and destroyed together
with many other churches in a fire in 998. Two other churches
worthy of mention are Notre- Dame la Riche, originally built in
the 13th century, rebuilt in the 16th, and magnificently restored
in the 19th century; and St Saturnin of the 15th century. The
new basilica of St Martin and the church of St Etienne are modern.
Of the old houses of Tours the hotel Gouin and that wrongly
known as the house of Tristan l'Hermite (both of the 15th century)
are the best known. Tours has several learned societies and a
valuable library, including among its MSS. a gospel of the 8th century
on which the kings of France took oath as honorary canons of the
church of St Martin. The museum contains a collection of pictures,
and the museum of the Archaeological Society of Touraine has
valuable antiquities; there is also a natural history museum.
The chief public monuments are the fountain of the Renaissance
built by Jacques de Beaune (d. 1527), financial minister, the statues
of Descartes, Rabelais and Balzac, the latter born at Tours, and a
monument to the three doctors Bretonneau, Trousseau and Velpeau.
Tours is the seat of an archbishop, a prefect, and a court of assizes,
and headquarters of the IX. Army Corps and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Among its
educational institutions are a preparatory school of medicine and
pharmacy, lycees for both sexes, a training college for girlsfand schools
of fine art and music. The industrial establishments of the town
include silk factories and numerous important printing-works,
steel works, irortfoundries and factories for automobiles, machinery,
oil, lime and cement, biscuits, portable buildings, stained glass,
boots and shoes and porcelain. A considerable trade is carried on
in the wine of the district and in brandy and in dried fruits, sausages
and confectionery, for which the town is well known. Three-quarters
of a mile to the south-west of Tours lie unimportant remains of
Plessis-les-Tours, the chateau built by Louis XL, whither he retired
before his death in 1483. On the right bank of the Loire 2 m.
above the town are the ruins of the ancient and powerful abbey of
Marmoutier. Five miles to the north-west is the large agricultural
reformatory of Mettray founded in 1839.
Tours (see Touraine), under the Gauls the capital of the
Turones or Turons, originally stood on the right bank of the
Loire, a little above the present village of St Symphorien. At
io8
TOURVILLE, COMTE DE
first called Altionos, the town was afterwards known as Caesar o-
dunum. The Romans removed the town from the hill where it
originally stood to the plain on the left bank of the river.
Behind the present cathedral, remains of the amphitheatre
(443 ft. in length by 394 in breadth) built towards the end of the
2nd century might formerly be seen. Tours became Christian
about 250 through the preaching of Gatien, who founded the
bishopric. The first cathedral was built a hundred years later by
StLitorius. The bishopric became an archbishopric when Gratian
made Tours the capital of Lugdunensis Tertia though the
bishops did not adopt the title of archbishop till the 9th
century. About the beginning of the 5th century the official
name of Caesarodunum was changed for that of Civitas Turo-
norum. St Martin, the great apostle of the Gauls, was bishop of
Tours in the 4th century, and he was buried in a suburb which
soon became as important as the town itself from the number of
pilgrims who flocked to his tomb. Towards the end of the 4th
century, apprehensive of barbarian invasion, the inhabitants
pulled down some of their earlier buildings in order' to raise a
fortified wall, the course of which can still be traced in places.
Their advanced fort of Larcay still overlooks the valley of the
Cher. Affiliated to the Armorican confederation in 43 s, the
town did not fall to the Visigoths till 473, and the new masters
were always hated. It became part of the Frankish dominions
under Clovis, who, in consideration of the help afforded by St
Martin, presented the church with rich gifts out of the spoils
taken from Alaric, confirmed and extended its right of sanc-
tuary, and accepted for himself and his successors the title of
canon of St Martin. At the end of the 6th century the bishopric
was held by St Gregory of Tours. Tours grew rapidly in
prosperity under the Merovingians, but abuse of the right of
sanctuary led to great disorder, and the church itself became
a hotbed of crime. Charlemagne re-established discipline in the
disorganized monastery and set over it the learned Alcuin,
who established at Tours one of the oldest public schools of
Christian philosophy and theology. The arts flourished at
Tours in the middle ages and the town was the centre of the
Poitevin Romanesque school of architecture. The abbey was
made into a collegiate church in the nth century, and was for a
time affiliated to Cluny, but soon came under the direct rule of
Rome, and for long had bishops of its own. The suburb in
which the monastery was situated became as important as Tours
itself under the name of Martinopolis. The Normans, attracted
by its riches, pillaged it in 853 and 903. Strong walls were
erected from 906 to 910, and the name was changed to that of
Chateauneuf. Philip Augustus sanctioned the communal
privileges which the inhabitants forced from the canons of
St Martin and the innumerable offerings of princes, lords and
pilgrims maintained the prosperity of the town all through the
middle ages. A 13th-century writer speaks with enthusiasm
of the wealth and luxury of the inhabitants of Chateauneuf,
of the beauty and chastity of the women and of the rich shrine
of the saint. In the 14th century Tours was united to Chateau-
neuf within a common wall, of which a round tower, the Tour
de Guise, remains, and both towns were put under the same
administration. The numerous and long-continued visits of
Charles VII., Louis XI., who established the silk-industry, and
Charles VIII. during the 15th century favoured the commerce
and industry of the town, then peopled by 75,000 inhabitants.
In the 15th and 16th centuries the presence of Jean Fouquet
the painter of Michel Colomb and the brothers Juste the sculp-
tors, enhanced the fame of the town in the sphere of art. In
1562 Tours suffered from the violence of both Protestants and
Catholics, and enjoyed no real security till after the pact entered
into at Plessis-les-'Tours between Henry III. and Henry of
Navarre in 1589. In the 17th and 18th centuries Tours was the
capital of the government of Touraine. Its manufactures,
of which silk weaving was the chief, suffered from the revocation
of the Edict of Nantes (1685). In 1772 its mint, whence were
issued the " livres " of Tours {librae Turonenses) was suppressed.
During the Revolution the town formed a base of operations of
the Republicans against the Vendeans. In 1870 it was for a
time the seat of the delegation of the government of national
defence. In 187 1 it was occupied by the Germans from the
10th of January to the 8th of March.
See P. Vitry, Tours et les chdteaux de Touraine (Paris, 1905) ;
E. Giraudet, Histoire de la ville de Tours (Tours, 1873); Les Artistes
tourangeaux (Tours, 1885).
TOURVILLE, ANNE-HILARION DE COTENTIN (or Cos-
tantin), Comte de (1642-1701), French admiral and marshal
of France, was the son of Cesar de Cotentin, or Costantin, who
held offices in the household of the king and of the prince of
Conde. He is said to have been born at Tourville in Normandy,
but was baptized in Paris on the 24th of November 1642, was
commonly known as M. de Tourville, and was destined by his
family to enter the Order of Malta. From the age of fourteen
to the age of twenty-five, he served with the galleys of the Order.
At that time the knights were still fighting the Barbary pirates
of Algiers and Tunis. The young Anne-Hilarion is said to have
been distinguished for courage. His life during these years,
however, is little known. The supposed Memoirs bearing his
name were published by the Abbe de Magron in the 18th century
and belong to the large class of historical romances which pro-
fessed to be biographies or autobiographies. In 1667 he was
back in France, and was incorporated in the corps of officers of
the French Royal navy which Louis XIV. was then raising from
the prostration into which it had fallen during his minority.
The positions of French naval officer and knight of Malta were
not incompatible. Many men held both. The usual practice
was that they did not take the full vows till they were in middle
life, and had reached the age when they were entitled to hold
one of the great offices. Until then they were free to marry,
on condition of renouncing all claim to the chief places. As
Anne-Hilarion de Cotentin married a wealthy widow, the
marquise de Popeliniere, in 1689 at which time he was made
count of Tourville, he severed his connexion with the Order.
Nor does he appear to have served with it at all after his return
to France in 1667. He was at first employed in cruising against
the Barbary pirates and the Turks. In the expedition sent
against Crete in 1668-69 under command of the Due de Beau-
fort he had command of the " Croissant " (44). The Due de
Beaufort was killed, and the expedition was a failure. When
the war with Holland in which France and England acted as
allies began in 1670, Tourville commanded the " Page " (50),
in the squadron of the comte d'Estrees (1624-1707) sent to
co-operate with the duke of York. He was present at the battle
of Solebay (June 7, 1672), and in the action on the coast of
Holland in the following year, when Prince Rupert commanded
the English fleet. When England withdrew from the alliance,
the scene of the naval war was transferred to the Mediterranean,
where Holland was co-operating with the Spaniards. Tour villle
served under Abraham Duquesne in his battles with De Ruyter.
He particularly distinguished himself at the battle of Palermo
on the 2nd of June 1676. By this time he was known as one of
the best officers in the service of King Louis XIV. Unlike many
employed by the king to command his ships in the earlier part
of his reign, Tourville was a seaman. He had the reputation
of being able to do all the work required in a ship, and he had
made a study of naval warfare. The great treatise on naval
tactics afterwards published under the name of